Article Citation: Fidelis Achoba, Adinoyi Anakobe, & Mohammed Lawal Shuaibu (2021). Religious Conflict and Peace Building in Nigeria: A Case Study of Christian-Muslim Dialogue Forum in Bussa, Borgu Local Government Area of Niger State, 1967-2017. DEGEL: The Journal of the Faculty of Arts and Islamic Studies, Vol. 19, No. 1. ISSN 0794-9316
RELIGIOUS
CONFLICT AND PEACE BUILDING IN NIGERIA: A CASE STUDY OF CHRISTIAN-MUSLIM
DIALOGUE FORUM IN BUSSA, BORGU LOCAL GOVERNMENT AREA OF NIGER STATE, 1967-2017
By
Fidelis
Achoba, Adinoyi Anakobe, & Mohammed Lawal Shuaibu
Abstract
Religion
in Nigeria, other parts of Africa and Middle East permeates the socio-economic
and political life of the people. This is quite unlike the western world that
places it in a compartment of its own, separating it from other aspects of
their existence, especially after the fall of the Holy Roman Empire in the age
that terminated in 1648. In Nigeria, there are three major religions, the
African Traditional Religion (ATR), Christianity and Islam. But what makes the
issue of religion very important in Nigeria and for this study, is the extent
of the involvement of Christianity and Islam in the daily, socio-economic and
political life of the peoples. In other words, there is a radical departure of
these religious beliefs from the ordinary realm of worship, to active
participation in all spheres of human endeavours. Religion therefore, threatens
the corporate existence of our nation as a result of frequent religious conflicts
that have for a while defiled permanent solution. Hence, the relationship
between the three religions can be seen as a triangle of suspicion arising from
different ideologies. But one common belief among them is the worship of the
Almighty God, which is supposed to serve as a nexus of unity, except for the
misinterpretation of the Holy Books by some selfish scholars. This research
thus, synergizes the need for unity among different religious bodies in Nigeria,
especially that of Christianity and Islam for peaceful coexistence, which will
enhance economic growth of the Nigerian nation, taking cognizance of
Christian-Muslim Dialogue Forum in Bussa.
Introduction
The
word “religion” derives from three Latin words as its root, namely, “ligare”
(meaning to bind), “relegare” (meaning to unite, to link together), and
“religio” (which means relationship).[1] The etymology of the word
“religion” thus shows that religion is essentially a relationship, a link
established between two persons, namely, a human person and a divine person
believed to exist. Religion is essentially a bi-polar phenomenon. On the other
one hand there is the human pole, while on the other end of it is the divine
pole and religion is what goes on between these two poles. Religion is, in
other words, an encounter between man and a transcendent deity conceived as a
personal being, capable of communicating with man. Hence, “The soul of religion
is one”, says Mahatma Gandhi, “but encased in a multitude of forms.”[2]
One
dominant feature of Nigeria is its intrinsic diversity in almost every sphere
of life. The numerous ethnic groups, languages, cultures and religious
persuasions, constitute a complex multiplicity which has been of no small
challenge to the Nigerian state. These diverse groups cover the thirty-six
states of the country and Abuja, the Federal Capital without exception, though
there are regions with more diversity than others. Of importance to this study
are the different religious traditions in Nigeria, which include the indigenous
religions, Islam and Christianity, in their various forms. Of these three,
Islam and Christianity are the major ones, although each of them is greatly
influenced by the indigenous religions. There is no consensus on the Islamic
and Christian populations in Nigeria as a range of figures is used by various
representations, depending on what fits their scheme. While some give Islam a
higher percentage of the population, others favour Christianity. Regrettably,
census results have been controversial in Nigeria and there are no mutually
acceptable demographic data of the adherents of the two dominant religions.
Religious
conflicts between Muslims and Christians in Northern Nigeria are: The Jos
religious mayhem of September 7-12, 2001 and the February 18, 2006, religious
violence in Maiduguri and the impact of dialogue in these entire crisis, using
the forum established in New Bussa as a yardstick. It was discovered that,
while the Jos conflict was perceived to be ‘internally’ generated, the conflict
of Maiduguri was triggered by the ‘external’ issue of the publication of the
contentious cartoon of Holy Prophet Mohammed in Denmark.[3] And while the Jos conflict
involved both Muslims and Christians engaging in acts of violence, the
Maiduguri conflict was found to be an attack on Muslims by Muslims and also on Christians
as well.
In
this paper reflections were carried out on an idea of hospitality as a
contribution to the search for the transformation of conflict in contemporary
Nigerian society and in particular, the impact of Christian-Muslim Dialogue Forum.
This has been suggested as a spirituality and strategy for the Church’s
involvement in conflict transformation. This is germane for Nigeria in keeping
with Karen Armstrong’s view concerning the unprecedented eruption of violence
in the twentieth century. She says:
Unless there is some kind of spiritual revolution that can keep abreast
of our technological genius, it is unlikely that we will save our planet. A
purely rational education will not suffice…Auschwitz, Rwanda, Bosnia and the
destruction of the World Trade Centre were all dark epiphanies that revealed
what can happen when the sense of the sacred inviolability of every single
human has been lost.[4]
Such
a spiritual revolution reinforces the need for a practical theology which will
inform Nigerian society on the desirability of the sacred in the pursuit of
peaceful coexistence.
The
problem of this research is that the Christian-Muslim conflicts are due to some
other major factors such as cultural, social, ethnic, regional, political and economic
issues which complicate itself with religion rather than religious conflict between
Muslims in the North and Christians in the South as Wuye and Ashafa, 1999 and other
authors have mentioned in their studies. This means that the division of
Nigeria into three major regions by the British was based on their cultural,
ethnic and religious differences. For example the Northerners are mainly
Muslims whereas the Southerners are mainly Christians. Each of these regions has
its own religion and cultures. Based on this kind of division, many Nigerians
always view any conflict between a region and another as a religious conflict,
thereby implicating adherents of a particular religion in the conflicts. The
religious ideas and worldviews in Nigeria are inherited as part of the
socialization process. It is in view of this, that Nigerians are using religion
as a tool for disturbance because religion permeates all aspects of life which
is played out more in the North, because it is considered to be a culture in a
different way than it is in the South. Most obvious is the religious division
and it is the most potent. This paper is therefore concerned about how to work
out harmonious relationships between Christians and Muslims in New Bussa
through an approach which combines the socioscientific methodology and
theological reflections. This differs from extant scholarly works that are
characterized by the avoidance of an ethical and practical theological ethos.
While these scholars have attempted to maintain neutrality in their approach to
religious conflicts, the argument of this thesis is that a practical theological
approach may engage the issue of religious conflict through novel ways, which
offer great hopes for a more reconciled living between Christians and Muslims
in contemporary Nigerian society. Spiritual efforts have been geared towards
solving problems in the lives of people and because of the volatile nature of
religious conflict in contemporary Nigeria, it becomes absolutely important to
reflect spiritually on how to promote peace, unity and progress.
This
study argues that Nigeria as a country is a domain of multiplicity and
diversity, which threatens its existence through incessant conflicts. Although
there are various kinds of multiplicity, the most obvious are in the areas of
ethnicity, politics and religion, and they all have generated violent conflicts
all over the country. Of these three, the most lethal, in my view, is religious
conflict, especially as manifested between Muslims and Christians in Nigeria.
More than anything else, it has become, in my estimation, the plumb line to
test the making or breaking of the nation. As a result, the nation has failed
to flourish because where there is insecurity of lives and property, there
cannot be meaningful development. In this case therefore, the dysfunctional use
of religion is at play, leading to the disintegration of the society. Gwamna
thus expressed his lament over the situation: “the continuing religious crisis
and the brutality exhibited in the face of the slightest provocation, attest to
the fact that religion has become a liability rather than an asset in the
Nigerian State.”[5]
This deplorable feat of religion in Nigeria has become a major concern of all
people.
Therefore,
this work seeks to present a picture of how religion has been used in a
dysfunctional way, as a tool for coercion and conflict; and how it could be
used in a functional way, as a tool for accord. Also, most of the recommended
steps for resolving Christian-Muslim conflicts have tactically avoided the
ethical issues of religious confessions. The argument of this thesis is that
religious conflict, which involves religious people, ought to employ contents
of beliefs and religious resources for its transformation. Christians and
Muslims are confessors of certain common beliefs which they have treated with
disregard in Nigeria, and to which their attention must be called, if there is
to be stability. This thesis therefore, suggests a practical theology of
conflict resolution/transformation for contemporary Nigerian society which
takes into consideration the worldviews of Nigerians and employs certain common
teachings of Indigenous Religions, Christianity and Islam. It is hoped that
this theological approach will rightly influence Christian praxis in Nigeria
and be an example to others. On the importance of such religious approaches,
Ilesanmi argues: “It is both unnecessary and undesirable to strip the state of
religious values...”[6]
Also, Assefa contends that religious approaches can even have advantages over
secular approaches to conflict transformation because they can more adequately
engage mindsets and behaviours which contribute to conflict.
It
is therefore argued in this paper that a spiritual model for religious conflict
transformation can complement other efforts already in use. It has been noted
that religious conflict, as manifested between Muslims and Christians in
Nigeria, has become one of the most potent threats to the stability and
development of the nation and if nothing urgent is done to alter this trend,
the making of the nation will remain elusive. In this connection, Alex Gboyega
recalls succinctly, the speech of T.Y Danjuma, one-time member of the top
echelon of Nigerian junta, who observed the predicament thus:
I cannot think of any time in this country‘s history that people were
so divided against each other as now. The most obvious is the religious
division and it is the most potent”.[7]
This
thesis is therefore concerned about how to work out harmonious relationships
between Christians and Muslims in Nigeria and New Bussa in particular through
an approach which combines the socio- scientific methodology and theological
reflections. This differs from extant scholarly works that are characterized by
the avoidance of an ethical and practical theological ethos. While these
scholars have attempted to maintain neutrality in their approach to religious
conflicts,[8]
the argument of this thesis is that a practical theological approach may engage
the issue of religious conflict through novel ways which offer great hopes for
a more reconciled living between Christians and Muslims in contemporary
Nigerian society. Theological efforts have been geared towards solving problems
in the lives of people and because of the volatile nature of religious conflict
in contemporary Nigeria, it becomes absolutely important to reflect
theologically on how to promote peace, unity and progress.
Historical
Background of Borgu
The
early history of the indigenous people of Borgu, as in the case of most
Nigerian ethnic groups, is, from the viewpoint of professional historiography,
still shrouded in mystery. This is so, because the usual guides of “Scientific”
historiography – particularly written records and archeological artifacts are
not readily available; where they are, they are either not comprehensive enough
or do not go deep enough in time to be of much relevance.
In
such circumstances, where empirical sources are inadequate, historians are left
with little other options than to rely on yet another source of historical
information – oral traditions and legends – though this is done with some
caution and circumspection.
However,
this situation of apparent dearth of adequate empirical historical sources,
changes for the better as form the 19th Century with the coming of
the Europeans. Against this background, a brief account of the history of Borgu
can be attempted under 7 historical time periods:
I. Earliest times -----------------200
B.C
II. 200 B.C. -----------------------1800
A.D.
III.
1800----------------------------1880
IV.
1880---------------------------1902
V. 1902----------------------------1967
VI.
1967----------------------------2017
Earliest
Time -200 B.C: Archeological excavations carried out in the
area near Bussa in the early 1960s produced the oldest known tools made by man
in Nigeria. These are pebble tools, form the Earlier African Stone Age period,
which are believed to date back to 60,000 B.C. (i.e 62,000 year ago). Such
tools are shaped by percussion to form crude chopping/cutting implements with
edges extending from 3cm to 12cm in Length, the early men who made them are
believed to have spread over the Savannah and bushy grasslands of Africa. Also
discovered in the area of the Niger Valley above Bussa are tools used by
Sangoan Man (of a later stage of the Earlier African Stone Age period) who
probably knew how to make fire and lived 37,000 years ago (35,000) B.C.).
Rescue archeological excavations conducted in the area now flooded by the
Kainji Lake have also indicated the presence of iron in the period .200 B.C.[9]
All
these imply that the area of Borgu has supported human communities for tens of
thousands of years and that such communities later developed iron-working
technologies. It is however not yet certain whether there are any links between
these pre-historic peoples and the present indigenes of Borgu.
200 B.C.
– 1800 A.D: This period represents an important historical
phase in Western Sudanese and Nigerian history. It marks the period during
which several indigenous African negro empires and kingdoms arose in the area
of present –day West Africa; these include Ghana, Kanem – Borno, Mali, Songhai,
the Hausa States, the Yoruba Kingdoms, the Bini Empire, etc.
The
oral traditions of the people of Borgu maintain that their ancestors arrived
and settled in the land of Borgu in the period around the 10th
Century A.D. It is said that about this period, Kisra, a magical/legendary
Prince from either Persia or Arabia, led a migration of people from East to
West of Africa. The first group or wave of migrants is said to have rested at
Bornu while two subsequent groups continued South-wards. One of these two
groups is said to have moved on to the Southwest to form Oyo while the other
proceeded in the direction South-west to establish the three original Borgu
towns of Illo, Nikki and Bussa. This last group of migrants is believed to have
been led by the three sons of Kisra-Woru, Sabi and Biyo - who after founding
the towns of IIIo, Nikki and Bussa, are said to have reigned as their first
kings[10].
In
the course of time, other major towns and communities arose all over Borgu e.g.
at Wawa, Babanna, Kaiama, Agwara, e.t.c. The people of Wawa however hasten to
add that their town was founded by a group of Kamberis, long before Mallam
Adamu (progenitor of the Wawa ruling dynasty) migrated to the area from Bornu
and changed the name of the town from Ghana to Wawa.
Although
the above mentioned migration of Kisra is yet to be confirmed by archeological
or other empirical evidences, it is nonetheless certain that by the 16th
Century Borgu was already a well-organized and formidable kingdom which had
started attracting the hostilities of its neighbours.
In
1504, Bussa and IIlo were invaded by the forces of Askia Mohammed the Great of
Songhai Empire. Half a century later in 1555, Askia Daud repeated the invasion,
sacking the town of Bussa and carrying away a female slave who later became the
mother of Askia Mohammed III who ruled Songhai from 1582-1586. Also, Orompotu,
the 10thAlafin of Oyo (1560-1580) is reported to have unleashed
havoc on Borgu during his reign[11].
With
the passage of time, Borgu was to reverse this seeming position of an underdog
to that of an aggressor. During the latter part of the 18thCentury, it is on
record that the forces of Borgu, as of the Nupes, constituted a serious menace
to the Yoruba Kingdom/Empire of Oyo thereby contributing to the factors which
combined to weaken and eventually destroy that Empire.
The
name of the earliest kings of Bussa are not known; the officially recorded king
list begins with the reign of Yerima Bussa who is said to have ruled Bussa from
1730 - 1750. Other kings who are said to have reigned in this period include
Kigera (1750-66), Jibrim (1766-91), Yerima Ibrahim (1791-92) and Kitoro
(1793-1835).[12]
1800 –
1880: According to the king list of Bussa, five
kings ruled in this period - Kitoro (1793-1835), Kisan Dogo (1835-43), Bewalaki
(1843-44), Gejere (1844-62) and Dan Toro (1862-95). Much is not known about
developments during their reigns, although some information can be gleaned from
the activities and records of European explorers who during this period sought
to unravel the mysteries of the legendary River Niger.
The
first of such explorers was the Scottish Doctor, Mungo Park. In July 1796 he
had “discovered” the Niger at Segu in present-day Mali, prooving that the river
flowed in an easterly direction contrary to other widely-held beliefs in Europe
as at then. Nine years later, in 1805, he returned to Africa with a party of 43
Europeans to determine the outlet of the Niger. “This expedition was a disaster
as almost all its members died one after the other, victims of tropical
diseases, infections and other peculiar hazards. Mungo Park himself and his few
remaining colleagues met their end in late 1805 on the Bussa Rapids under
circumstances which are still not clear enough.[13]
In
1825, another set of European explorers, Lt. Hugh Clapperton and Richard
Lander, passed through Bussa. “They had trekked up north from Badagry in search
of the Niger, crossing it at Bussa and moving on to Sokoto, perhaps not knowing
that they had already left behind the object of their mission. Clapperton died
out of disappointment at the failure of his exploration while Richard Lander
returned with his brother, John, to complete the unfinished work. In 1880, they
landed at Badagry and trekked on to Bussa where,’ after some difficulties, they
secured two boats and successfully sailed South wards down the Niger into the
Atlantic Ocean, thereby solving the mystery of the outlet of the River Niger,
for all time.[14]
1880 –
1902: The later part of the 19th. Century
West African history was dominated by the scramble for and partitioning of West
African territories by the Europeans. The frantic imperialist activities of the
European Powers created an atmosphere of impending war between their forces. In
an attempt to guard against such an eventuality, the Berlin West African
Conference was convened in Germany between 1884 and 1885. At the Conference, it
was resolved; inter alia, that all European claims to West African territories
were to be supported with “Treaties of Protection” signed by the indigenous
rulers of such territories.
Against
this background, a historic drama was to be enacted in the area of Borgu. This
was the famous Race to Nikki of 1894, which brought Britain and France to the
brink of war over their mutually exclusive imperialist designs on Borgu. Close
to Borgu is Benin Republic which France declared a protectorate in 1892,
Britain’s imperialist agent, the Royal Nigeria Company of George Tubman Goldie
had contended part of the area. Thus, British has to a large extent settled in
the northern, eastern as well as part of the western boundaries of what was to
later become Nigeria. The only area of indefinition lay in the area of Borgu
whose territories were in both Britain as well as France indirect spheres of
influence, and through which flowed the strategic River Niger. In 1885, Britain
had actually signed a Treaty with Dan Toro of Bussa as well as with the Sultan
of Sokoto, these were however bitterly contested by France which maintained
that the defacto Sovereign of Borgu was the King of Nikki. A race thus ensued
between French and British agents to secure the area of Borgu by getting the
King of Nikki to sign a Treaty of Protection with them. The French officials
were led by Decoeur while the British were led by their arch imperialist
official, Frederick Lugard.[15]
Lugard
arrived Nigeria in August, 1894 and sailed up the Niger from Akassa to Jebba.
Thereafter, he arrived at Bussa from where he obtained letters from Kisan Dogo
II to the rulers of Kaiama and Nikki in exchange for gun powder. In September,
he set out for Nikki, hoping to arrive there before the French. Fortunately for
him, he succeeded – in this and eventually succeeded in obtaining a Treaty of
Protection from the King. However, the acquisition of this Treaty by Britain
was to further intensify, to dangerous dimensions, the struggle for
territories, especially between France and Britain: Bida and IIorin were
hurriedly conquered by Britain in 1897 while France placed its officials and
agents at IIIo, Kaiama and Kishi and instructed them to move on to Bussa. This
French occupation of Borgu towns was resented by most of the leaders and people
of Borgu. Britain on its own part, reacted by creating in 1898 its first ever
standing Army in West Africa, the West African Frontier Force. The Force was
set up to militarily resist the incursions of French imperialist troops. Thus,
the imperialist activities of Britain and France in Borgu led to an imminent
outbreak of war between the two European Countries.
The
tension was, however, defused with the holding of special Anglo-French
negotiations in Europe. At the end of the negotiations, France secured Nikki
and almost two-thirds of Pre-Colonial Borgu territory but was excluded from the
navigable portion of the Niger, South of Bussa. Britain was pushed down the
Niger to IIIo and given the whole of eastern Borgu. Thus, Borgu was split into
two parts with Nikki falling under the jurisdiction of France in the West (in
present-day Benin Republic, formerly Dahomey) while Bussa and IIIo went to
Britain in the East (in present-day Nigeria).
The
British section of Borgu was termed Borgu Province with a Northern and Southern
Division. Such towns as Yashikera, Gwanara, Okuta and IIesha which were
previously under Nikki, were reorganized into the Southern Division under the
authority of the king of Kaiama; the Northern Division was made up of IIIo,
Bussa, Kaoje, Kwanji, Agwara, Wawa and Babanna”.[16]
The
administration of the newly-created Borgu Province was headed by Harry Kemble,
the First Resident of Borgu; he remained in office till April, 1903 when he was
replaced by Captain ‘P.W. Anderson. They introduced and operated the British
Colonial system of administration, Indirect Rule, which was a system of
administration of African people by their traditional leader/rulers under the
supervision of British Colonial Officials. The kings of Bussa in this era were
Dan Toro (1862-95 and Kisan Dogo II (1895-1902).[17]
1902-1967:
Mohammed Kitoro Gani ascended the throne of
Bussa in 1903, the beginning of his remarkable, strangely unique experiences as
king of Bussa. His first reign came to an end in 1914 when he was deposed and
exiled to Kontagora by the British, over what they termed his administrative
inefficiency. The attempt to replace him with an ex-slave sparked off a major
revolt against British rule. Prior to the outbreak of the revolt, the people of
Borgu had been nursing several grudges against the British administration as a
result of certain administrative reforms which were regarded as being
iconoclastic.
The
first of such reforms, that of 1902 which elevated Kaiama as well as Bussa (a
traditional superior) to the same political/administrative status as equal
Emirates, led to serious disaffection; furthermore, the people of Yashilera,
Okuta, Ilesha and Gwanara bitterly resented their being subjected to Kaiama
rather than Bussa, as Nikki, their erstwhile traditional overlord, has been
exiled away to Dahomey. Also, in 1907, Borgu Province was disbanded with its
two Emirates of Bussa and Kaiama being merged with Kontagora Province; in
addition, IIIo and other neighbouring towns such as Kaoje which were under
Borgu, were cut off and joined to Sokoto Province. The people of Borgu
therefore lost their superior political position or stature in addition to
suffering some dismemberment of their traditional polity. Thirdly, in 1913, the
British divided Bussa Emirate into 4 districts and directly appointed their
District Heads without prior Consultations with the Bussa royal family. Furthermore,
a Mayor of Bussa was appointed by the British in the person of the Emir’s
Turaki, who was an ex-slave of the Emir.[18]
Consequently,
the Princes of Bussa began to instigate their people against the British and
their purported stooges. The situation deteriorated speedily and in 1914 events
came to a climax: Bussa Emirate was dissolved, Mohammed Kitoro Gani was deposed
as Emir and exiled to Kontagora and the Turaki was made the District Head of
Bussa; in addition, Bussa was then placed under the direct jurisdiction of the
Chief of Yauri.
To
the people of Bussa, nay Borgu, the cup of tolerance had filled to the brim and
had overflowed and a violent reaction therefore became inevitable. Law and
order collapsed as Subuki, junior brother of the deposed Emir raised an army of
600 armed warriors and invaded Bussa. Lives and property, especially of the
purposed British stooges and their supporters were lost and destroyed, general
insecurity and uncertainty pervaded the town and repeated threats were issued
on the lives of officials of the Native Authority collected.[19]
This
revolt continued till late 1915 despite military counter-measures; the British
were therefore forced to take reconciliatory steps towards the restoration of
normalcy: Bussa was removed from the jurisdiction of Yawuri and transferred to
IIorin Province, the Turaki was arrested, charged with opportunism and
manslaughter and jailed for 10 years and Ki Jibrim Kpandara, a Prince of Bussa,
was appointed the new Emir of Bussa.
Emir
Jibrim is credited with being the first ruler of Bussa to be converted to
Islam. During his reign, Kotangora Province was disbanded in 1923 and its
former units reorganized; Borgu was transferred to IIorin Province and divided
into two Native Authorities – Bussa and Kaiama.
Ki
Jibrim Kpandara was deposed as Emir in 1924 and replaced with the former Emir,
Mohammed Kitoro Gani, who was recalled from exile. Emir KitoroGani’s second
reign ended in 1935 when he was deposed for yet another time and exiled. He was
succeeded by his brother, Babaki, better known as Alhaji Mohammed Sani, who
became Emir of Bussa in September, 1935.[20]
Emir
Mohammed Sani’ reign ushered in several important developments. First, the
Emirate of Kaiama was dissolved in 1954 and Kaiama and Bussa were merged into
the Borgu; Kaiama was also made a Distract under the Emir of Bussa. Secondly,
Bussa Emirate was redesignatedBorgu. ‘Thirdly, steps were taken to improve the
economic and social life of Borgu, the most outstanding of the projects
initiated during his reign was the massive Kainji Dam Project, the most
important hyro-electronic power generating station in the country, estimated to
cost over 68 million Pounds, the Kainji Dam was the biggest single Project in
the Nation’s first National Development Plan (1962-68). ‘The construction of
this Dam necessitated the relocation and resettlement of a number of
communities and towns; the inhabitants of Old Bussa moved 39kms to the South,
due east of Wawa to a new settlement which was christened New Bussa.[21]
Alhaji
Mohammed Sani’s reign ended on December 26, 1967 when he passed away. He was
succeeded by his Son, Alhaji Musa Mohammed Kigera III. Thus, from 1967 to 2017
succession to the throne remained in that order.
Christian-Muslim
dialogue in New Bussa
Dialogue
is an important activity for fostering community relations. It helps people of
different social, cultural, political and religious institutions to come to a
better understanding of each other.
Dialogue
can be revolutionary when it fosters discipline, planning, continuous,
diversity, conflict exploration, decision making, expanding our capacity for
attention, awareness, learning with and from each other and exploring what it
means to be human in a pluralistic environment.[22] According to a philosopher
and social scientist, Alberto Quattruci, dialogue is patient listening to one
another, understanding and recognising the human and spiritual make-up of the
other. He argues that problem solving is leadership.[23]For interreligious dialogue
analyst, Leonard Swidler, Dialogue can be defined as a conversation, a frank
discussion between two or more parties with the aim of learning and
understanding each other’s point of view. It is a conversation on a common
subject between two or more people with differing views, so dialogue must
transcend the limited world of specialists to involve people in the community.[24]
Moreover, the dynamics of religious encounter demand that dialogue be initiated
to achieve cooperation between individuals, groups and communities who may
differ in terms of religious, political, social or cultural ideologies. For
Muslims and Christians in New Bussa, enjoying relative peaceful environment, it
is as a result of the understanding that both parties have, and it is a
well-known fact that without dialogue playing an essential role in the
community, there can’t be a negotiating peaceful coexistence and religious
growth in both faith communities.
The
Quran explicitly calls on Muslims to engage with believers who are their
associates and not dispute with the “people of the book” (Q 29:46-47). The Prophet
further encouraged Muslims to invite people to the way of the Lord with wisdom
and good example and to dialogue with them in the best and most gracious ways
(Q 16:125).
Similarly,
the Christian Bible can be described as a dialogue account between God and His
people. A critical study of life and ministry of Jesus in the Gospel reveals
that Jesus was in constant dialogue with the people around him. For Example,
Jesus is continuously engaged in dialogue with his disciples and individuals
(The Samaritan woman at the well (Jn 4: 1-30), the Canaanite woman (Matthew
15:21-28) and the Syrophoenician woman (Mark 7:24-30) and the Pharisees
(Matthew 19; Mark 12:13; Lk 20:41). Moreover, in the first letter of Peter,
Christians are admonished to be ready always to answer questions with respect,
gentleness and reverence, while keeping a clear conscience. (1 Petert 3:15).
The
Second Vatican Council declaration in Nostra Aetate (no.2-3) and Gaudiumet
Spes (no.92) urges Christians to dialogue with prudence and charity with
members of other religions in an atmosphere of mutual esteem, reverence and
harmony.[25]
Islamic
history and tradition acknowledges pluralism in culture and religion as an
undeniable fact; hence dialogue between Islam and other religions is first and
foremost a necessary and vital re-establishment of contact with the world.
Scholars in the field of interreligious dialogue, such as John McDade, Michael
Fitzgerald, John Borelli and the Nigerian religious analyst Bauna Peter Tanko,
differentiate dialogue into the following typologies:
Information
seeking Dialogue: The aim is to transmit information from one
party to another in order to ameloirate tension or crises.
Dialogue
of Negotiation: The aim is for both parties to strike a deal,
come to an agreement or compromise through bargaining over an issue, conceding
some interests and insisting on others for attainment of peaceful co-existence.
Dialogue
of Inquiry: In this process, the aim is for the
participants to collectively prove a particular position according to given
standard of proof to ascertain the root cause of a conflict.
Dialogue
of Life: This is where the participants strive to live
in an open neigbourly spirit, sharing the challenges of life that come their
way and supporting one another to better their life.
Dialogue
of Action or Dialogue of Deed: Each
participant and the group collaborate to seek the integral liberation and
development of all people. Such conversations and action includes, for example,
addressing issues of social justice, poverty and community development. The
goal of collaboration is humanitarian, social, economic or political in nature,
for the benefit of all in the community.
Dialogue
of Theological Exchange: This is a forum for
specialists to share, draw from each other and seek to deepen their
understanding of their own religious perspective and learn to appreciate the
spiritual heritage and values of the other.
Dialogue
of Religious Experience: Here people of
different religious traditions come together to share their spiritual riches,
such as prayer, to deepen understanding, friendship and respect for each other.
This could also be referred to as interreligious dialogue.[26] Dialogue for peace
building requires Muslims and Christians to embrace their fundamental call to
dialogue so that the dynamism and will to interact with each other in dignity
and freedom may flourish. This demands genuine interest in another religious tradition,
its teachings, ritual-practices and life of faith experience, since the purpose
of dialogue includes mutual enrichment and growth in the truth.[27]
Dialogue can facilitate peace building activities, conflict resolution and
reconciliation among peoples and communities. It builds trust and sustains
confidence among individuals and groups. Dialogue; be it cultural, social,
political, or religious, has the potential to build understanding, peace and
harmony.[28]
To
advance this objective, the Catholic Bishops’ Conference of Nigeria has
challenged Christians in Nigeria to continuous dialogue, especially with the
Islamic community, and has established a department for Dialogue and Mission
within the Catholic Secretariat of Nigeria. However, the success of
interreligious dialogue is impeded by a number of obstacles; insufficient
grounding in one’s own religious traditions, results in a lack of appreciation
of their significance and misrepresentation. Other impediments are a lack of
openness, which leads to defensive or aggressive behavior and suspicion about
the motives of others. Intolerance (associated with ethnic, social, economic,
political and racial factors), lack of reciprocity, religious indifference,
religious extremism, lack of self-criticism and lack of respect, all create
confusion and give rise to new challenges that inhibits dialogue process. A
typical case was the crisis that emanated from an event that should have brought
peace and tranquility to the community but it turned out to be a bloody one.
Lives were lost, houses were burnt down and many individuals were displaced.
Two communities fighting because a church was built on their piece of land and
because of that, the small church was raised down and the other community too
retaliated. There was serious chaos in the community. It took the grace of God
and intervention of other group to calm the situation.
As
Christians-Muslims, we must be ready to tolerate other religion. Our religion
should not be seen as the most important and others are not. We should be able
to co-exist.
Impact of
the Dialogue in Bussa
In
Bussa, the fear of sudden extremist attack has been allayed because of mutul
understanding among the Muslim-Christian communities’ occassioned by regular
dialogue relatons among the two faiths. By this the priests in the two faiths
were able to integrate the teachings of do(s) and don’t(s) religiously in their
congregational worships. These includes the greetings of neighbours on the
occasion of their religious feasts, extension of foods and drinks in such
religious festivals, avoidance of ungodly acts viz aviz; fighting, rapeing and
molestation, the teaching of children to respect people of other religion and
to resolve conflict based on the things the two religions have in common as a
panacea for unity.
By
extension then, the Christian-Muslim dialogue in Bussa has tremendiously
extended peace to the Nigerian nation state at large. This is because when
there is religious conflict in a section of the country, it usually extends to
other parts in the form of solidarity fight. A good example of this could be
seen in Kano religious crisis of 1991 which led to a retaliatary attack on
Hausa-Muslim Communities in Onitsha and Umuahia respectively within a couple of
days. So the religious peace and harmony enjoyed in Bussa has partial impact in
Nigeria. The other Muslim-Christian Communities in Nigeria should therefore
borrow leaf from the Bussa Communities.
As
a result of the dialogue hitherto mentioned, the Sharia Court in Bussa is
restricted to the Muslim faithfuls only no matter the spiritual crisis between
a Christian and Muslim. In this case there is no imposition of belief system on
the other person who belongs to another faith. So, the secular court melts out
justice by redresssing injustices in the Bussa commmunities or society. This is
a prove of robust understand among Muslims and Christains in Bussa.
Coupled
with the above peace enjoined as offshoot of Christian-Muslim dialogue is the
growth of socio-economic activities in Bussa. The economic activities that
occurred in Bussa society were fishing, weaving, dying, basket making and wood
carving. The locational factor of the Bussa, made fishing a natural call among
the people. The method of fishing was mainly the use of net. The other
agricultural production includes cultivation of tubers, and cereals. In the
aspect of social activities there were a number of inter-religious marriages
among the people. This also foster unity in the Bussa society.
The
Challenges of Interreligious Dialogue in New Bussa Today
In
this segment, focus would be on the challenges that continue to impede the
process of interreligious dialogue in the region under study.
Although
remarkable progress has been made in sustaining the process of Christian-Muslim
dialogue in New Bussa, Northern Nigeria, evaluating how effective it has been
is not an easy exercise, as it involves social, economic, political, ethnic,
cultural, historical and religious concerns. However it is believed that
success depends very much on how committed religious leaders and participants
are willing to explore new ways of addressing these questions.
A
major challenge is a missing link: grass roots community participation in the
process of dialogue. Dialogue as understood in this work is an invitation for
partners to come together to share the wealth of each religious tradition, with
the aim of building better understanding and peaceful cooperation. However, in
my experience, it seems that interreligious dialogue in New Bussa, Borgu Local
Government Area takes place almost exclusively at the level of the elite –
religious leaders and other experts, without the participation in the grass
roots community level. This means that the experiences, feelings, concerns and
aspirations of ordinary people do not feature dialogue sessions.
As
Islamic philosopher Tariq Ramadan affirms:
To be involved in dialogue between two religions while being completely
cut off from the believers of one’s own religion is problematic and can be
counterproductive. Many ‘specialist’ in interreligious dialogue move from
conference to conference totally disconnected from their religious community as
well as the grass root realities.[29]
I
agree with Ramadan, because in such situations there is little or no feedback
to and from the grass roots community where all the actions and interactions of
day-to-day living takes place. This implies that community dialogue for peace
building is more or less non-existent or not strengthened, as is evident, for
instance, in the violent conflicts where faith communities attack each other in
the name of religion. Consequently, this lack of consistent contact with the
grass roots communities means that very little progress is recorded as far as
interreligious dialogue is concerned. Moreover, it is the duty of those who
take part in formal dialogue setting to ensure that there is free flow of
information to and from their communities. It is also their responsibility to
encourage members of their faith community to dialogue in their day to day
interactions, respecting the dignity of all.
Furthermore,
very few women take active part in the dialogue process, perhaps due to lack of
education, encouragement and the male dominated structure of the society.
However, women play an important role in the community, especially in the home.
There they have a unique but subtle way of keeping peace in and building mutual
understanding in the family. Their almost non participation in the formal
dialogue process means a great deal of experience is missing. It is imperative
for leaders to explore ways of encouraging women’s active participation in the
dialogue process.
Other
factors that continue to mar the efforts and progress of genuine
Christian-Muslim dialogue in New Bussa include misconceptions, mistrust,
suspicion, lack of equality among participants, prejudices, stereotypes,
ethnicity, anger, selfishness, lack of respect, frustration, fear and political
bias. All these counter the honest, open and trusting attitude necessary for
interreligious relations. Politics is greatly influenced by religion, so that
relations between the two faith communities are characterized by competition, tension
and rivalry.195 Religious sentiments are employed on both sides to
foster political, economic, social and ethnic discrimination. Access to the
corridors of power means political and social favours for one’s faith community
at the expense of common good. For example, public funds are used to build
places of worship and to pay for Muslim and Christian pilgrimages.
Often,
dialogue takes place between participants who know little about the other
faith. Although participants (religious leaders) share with each other, their
understanding remains very shallow and ways of expression and perception
differ. This sometimes leads to anger, frustration and lack of interest.
Past
historical events and experiences continue to influence the image and
perception of the other. Violent conflicts over the years have soured
relationships between the two faith communities; past hurts and pains affect
the trust building process. Christians and Muslims judge each other in the
light of their experiences and form opinions which in turn affect sincere
commitment to explore ways to forgive and be reconciled. Each group thinks and
feels that the issues discussed remain at the dialogue stage and do not affect
general life in society. This becomes evident in times of conflict when issues
quickly degenerate into violence and the perceived hurt is avenged by one group
on the other. These deep wounds of the past hinder the efforts to build trust,
making it difficult for the two to accept each other as equals.
In
addition, the lack of sustained dialogue between adherents of the same faith
tradition and their leaders who participate in the dialogue process impedes
progress. Sustained information sharing, catechesis and interaction between
members of the same faith tradition and their leaders is necessary to enhance
better understanding of their own faith and encourage good relations with those
of other faith traditions. Intra-faith dialogue provides an opportunity to
teach the faith and provide and receive feedback to the dialogue session.[30]
Furthermore, sometimes valuable support and cooperation of religious, political
and social leaders is not constant, making it difficult to access the resources
needed sto enhance dialogue. This stifles the effort of those who mobilise
people for interreligious dialogue.[31] However, amidst all these
challenges, is there any hope for sustainable peace, building through
interreligious dialogue in New Bussa, Borgu Local Government Area? The
following section evaluates the prospect of progress.
The
Prospect of Interreligious Dialogue in New Bussa
This
section discusses the potential for interreligious dialogue for future peace in
the region and the need for faith communities to collaborate if this vision is
to come to fruition. The hope for Christian - Muslim dialogue in Borgu Local
Government Area of Niger State depends on the willingness of the two faith
communities to concede sincerely that the love of providence of God extends to
all human beings equally, irrespective of religious, cultural and ethnic
identity. Both must strive to accept each other’s faith on their own terms and
recognize that there is truth in both the Quran and the Bible. Hence the
ultimate goal and hope of religious dialogue is in the ability of Christians
and Muslims to hear God speaking to them within their own faith experience and
humbly listen to the same voice speaking to both faith traditions in the
process of dialogue (Q 5:48 and 1Jn 3:2). Accordingly, accepting and respecting
the religious freedom of others means being involved in a mutual dialogue of
understanding and cooperation, one that seeks to respect the religious beliefs
of others and the freedom to choose and practice their faith. Such dialogue
demands, as Quattrucci puts it, patient listening to one another in order to
understand each other. The future of building peaceful coexistence in same
community consists of extending the hand of friendship to the other and opening
sustained channels of communication, such as visits and support in times of
need. The long history of mistrust and violence must not be a barrier to
reconciliation.
Religious
leaders have to, at all times, preach the basis of the truth on which both
religions, Christianity and Islam stand, which is love and peace. Jesus
preached love. When asked about the greatest commandment, He answered:
You
shall love the Lord your God with all your heart, with all your soul, and with
your entire mind.' This is the first and greatest commandment. And the second
is like it: 'You shall love your neighbor as yourself.' On these two
commandments hang all the Law and the Prophets. (Matthew 22:37-40)
Jesus
also tied the issue of good neighbourliness to love when on another occasion He
told a parable about the Good Samaritan to demonstrate His message. The
Samaritans and the Jews were not of the same culture and religion though they
co-existed. In fact, prior to the time of Jesus, the Jews were not to have
anything with the Samaritans. Yet Jesus taught otherwise, to love all men. On
peace and neighbourliness, Apostle Paul admonished Christians to live peaceably
with all men (Romans 12:18). The Bible and the Qur’an are filled with such
injunctions.
Islam
teaches tolerance, accommodation, hospitality, justice in treatment of others,
promotion of peace with non-Muslims, equality of all mankind in the world, and
above all seeking for inter-faith dialogue. To summarize the above: Islam is a
religion of love and peace. Islam pursues cordial co-existence among peoples of
different cultures and faith. On inter faith dialogue, Allah instructed Prophet
Mohammed: “O people of the scripture come to an agreement between us and you…”
(Quran, 3:64) The people of the scripture are the Christians and the Jews, with
whom Muslims co-existed. There was therefore mutual trust, dialogue and
co-existence between both parties.
Lessons
on tolerance in the Quran are presented in various ways, and they range from
the practice of the rule of non-isolation to respect for the practitioners of
other belief systems in their own rights as human beings, created by Allah.
This stands also on justice and equality. To this the Glorious Qur’an says:
“And do not let the hatred of people prevent you from being just. Be just that
is nearer to righteousness.” (Quran 5:8)
Jesus
Christ also preached peace and non-violence saying in Matthew 5:9, “Blessed are
the peacemakers for they shall be called the children of God.” On this the
Quran also teaches: “The faithful servants of the beneficent are those who walk
upon the earth modestly, and when the foolish address them, they say peace.”
(Quran 25:63) Jesus as well talked about non-violence when He said that no more
shall it be an eye for an eye or a tooth for a tooth but “Whoever shall smite
thee on the right cheek, turn to him the other cheek also …” (Matthew 5:39).
This does not imply that, one should continue to smite the same cheek
repeatedly.
From
the above we glean that both Jesus Christ and Prophet Mohammed admonished their
followers to practice non-violence and promote love and peace; accommodation
and hospitality.
Among His signs is the creation of the heavens. And the earth and the
variations in your languages and your other colours verily in that are signs
for those who know.” (Quran 30:22)
When
people understand the power of God in creating the earth and variations in His
creation - a power that they do not have; they would fully be humbled to
appreciate one another and know that they serve and worship God better when
they have hospitality for the next person and accommodate him. Consider also
what the Glorious Quran says: “O mankind; reverence your Guardian Lord who
created you from a single person, created of like nature, his mate and …”
(Quran 4:1)
This
passage explains the purpose for Allah creating variations in peoples and
species of His creatures – simply to serve His glory. (Qur’an 30:22) All men,
therefore, coming from one source should respect one another and live in the
harmony deserved of them. The quest for peace and peaceful co-existence (in
Busa, Borgu Local Government Area of Niger State) is one that must be pursued
with vigour and understanding by all concerned religious groups.
Conclusion
Muslims
and Christians in the area must commit to paving the way to harmony by mutual
respect in order for peace to flourish. Religion must be the platform for
building good and enduring friendships by exploring in dialogue the common
ground between Islam and Christianity. There has to be a conscious and creative
effort on the part of religious leaders and those who participate in
interreligious dialogue to build sound relationship in their own faith
communities and have a sound theological knowledge of their faith. Without this
effort there is a danger that those involved in interreligious dialogue may
slip away from their own faith communities to become a closed circle of
intellectuals who speak mostly to and for themselves, and do not promote the
concerns of the faith community in the peace building process.
The
future of interreligious dialogue presupposes religious education about the
other. Basic knowledge of the other fosters openness, understanding, respect
for the truth and sincerity of purpose. Religious dialogue in the area must
encourage the education of the younger generation, so that they grow with the
basic knowledge and understanding of the religious other. Furthermore,
religious organizations must work in collaboration with each other, that is,
the Christian Association of Nigeria (CAN), Jamatu Nasril Islam (JNI), the
Muslims Students Society of Nigeria (MSSN), Catholic Women Organization (CWO),
Federation of Muslim Women Associations of Nigeria (FOMWAN).
Much
could be achieved in peace building at the grass root community level.
Moreover, what is needed is not simply religious tolerance, but something much
more positive and proactive, a conscious mutual respect, dialogue and
solidarity among peoples. This may be achieved through creative cooperation, a
common project that brings people together to address a particular need in
society, for example, digging a well for the provision of portable water. Such
steady efforts towards social harmony and genuine acts of love and support for
each other are necessary for the future peace in the environment. Religious
leaders, politicians and government must do everything within their power to
encourage interreligious dialogue for peace. To abandon such ventures would mean
giving new impetus to the formation of ghettos, ethnic and religious violence
and development of various new expressions of religious fanaticism and chaos.
This is not what Nigeria needs at this time.
From
the foregoing, it is imperative to note that unity is for the living and not
for the dead. Thus, unity can only be achieved through dialogue among leaders
of various faiths and also through focus group discussion dialogue or town
meetings as two wrongs they say, cannot make a right. Therefore, all violent
religious people should be seen as bad messengers with good message. In other
words, they use religion to justify their socio-political and economic
interests at the detriment of other members of the society. This is an evil
tendency contrary to the peace of others. Islam means total submission to the
will of Allah (God). Whereas, Christianity is also total submission to the will
of God through Jesus Christ. Both are religions of peace. For instance, Islam
came to Igalaland and other parts of north central Nigeria through peaceful
trading activities, preaching and harmonious co-existence. In the same vein
Christianity came through peaceful propagation of the gospel under the
leadership of Bishop Samuel Ajayi Crowther. What is important is that we are
all descendants of Adam and we worship the same God. No one has right to take
the life of others, except God the Creator. Dialogue is thus a panacea for
peace building among Muslims and Christians.
References
Alex G.
(1997). Nigeria Conflict Unresolved in Governance
as Conflict Management: Politics and
Violence in West Africa ed., William Zartman (Washington D.C: Bookings
Institution Press
Cornelius
A. (2014). Dialogue in Context: A Nigerian Experience, Virtual Insignia
Press
Dogara J.
(2006). Turning the Tides of Religious Intolerance in Nigeria, the External
Connection. A Paper Presented at the
Annual Conference of the Historical Society of Nigeria at the University of Jos
Isidore N.
(2005). Christian-Muslim Relations in Nigeria. Free Enterprises Publishers. 503
Joseph O.
(2002). Comparative Religion: Christianity and Other World Religions in
Dialogue; Joja Press Limited
John C. and Onaiyeka O.
(2013) “Seeking Common Grounds: Inter-Religious Dialogue in African. The Collected Writings 1(1978-2013).
Pauline Publications.
Justice and Peace Commission
of St. Barbara‟s Catholic
Church (1999). Interview with the Dantoro Kitoro IV Mai Borgu, HRH (BAR),
Muhammed Sani Haliru, Borgu, Niger State.
Kalu, K.
(2003). An elusive quest? Structural analysis of conflicts and peace in
Africa in Uwazie, Ernest (2003).Conflict
resolution and peace education in Africa. New York. Lanham, Boulder:
Lexington Books. pp. 19-38.
Karen A.
(2006). The Great Transformation. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, xi.
Khadiagala,
G. (2006). Security dynamics in Africa’s great lakes region. A project of the International Peace
Academy.Boulder London: Lynne Reinner Publishers.
Mohammed
B. (1977). Power Plant Royalty For Borgu Kingdom.75
Nze P.
(1998). The Historic Nation of Borgu: A goldmine of Human and Material
Resources. (Mini-Edition), Tadamas Printing Press
[1]Khadiagala, Gilbert 2006.
Security dynamics in Africa’s great lakes region.A project of the International
Peace Academy.Boulder London: Lynne Reinner Publishers.
[2]Kalu, Kelechi 2003.An
elusive quest?Structural analysis of conflicts and peace in Africa in Uwazie,
Ernest 2003.Conflict resolution and peace education in Africa. New York.
Lanham, Boulder: Lexington Books. pp. 19-38.
[3]Col MS Abubakar affirmed: “That
there are possible external factors to the growing trends of religious
extremism and fundamentalism cannot be easily dismissed”, Religious Extremism as a National Security Problem: Strategies for
Sustainable Solutions, Senior Executive Course No. 28. National Institute
for Policy and Strategic Studies, Kuru, p.2.
[4]Karen Armstrong, The Great
Transformation (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2006), xi.
[5]Dogara Je’ adayibe Gwamma, “Turning
the Tides of Religious Intolerance in Nigeria, the External Connections”, A
Paper Presented at the Annual Conference of the Historical Society of Nigeria
at the University of Jos, 2006.
[6]Ilesanmi, xxviii.
[7]Alex
Gboyega, “Nigeria: Conflict Unresolved” in Governance
as Conflict Management: Politics and Violence in West Africa ed., William
Zartman (Washington D.C: Bookings Institution Press, 1997), 195.
[8]Ilesanmi
argues that scholars of religion and Politics have always avoided the normative
questions of religion by seeking neutrality. He calls for moral reflection as
“the corrective lens” on the issues of social environment. xxviii.
[10]Ibid
[11]Nze P.
Nze, The Historic Nation of Borgu: A
goldmine of Human and Material Resources. (Mini-Edition), Tadamas Printing
Press, 1998 P.20
[12]Ibid. P.
21
[13]Ibid. P.
25
[16]Mohammed
B.M, Power Plant Royalty For Borgu
Kingdom, 1977 P.75
[17]Kainji
Lake National Park Leaflet, 1999 Edition
[18]An
interview conducted by Justice and Peace Commission of St. Barbara’s Catholic
Church, New Bussa, Niger State under the Catholic Vicariate of kotangora with
the Newly Enthroned DantoroKitoro IV Mai Borgu, HRH (BAR), MuhammedSaniHaliru
[19]Government
Technical College New Bussa, Niger State: The Maiden Edition of The School
Magazine. BUS-TECH-ECHO, 2016. P. 20-21
[20]Op. cit.
“Nze P. Nze” P.51
[21]ibid.
56
[22]Isidore Nwanaju,
Christian-Muslim Relations in Nigeria,
Printed and Published by Free Enterprises Publishers, 2005 P. 503
[25]http://www.vatican.va/roman_curia/pontifical_councils/interelg/documents/rc_pc_interlg_doc/;McDade,NostraAetate.
[26]See
Arinze, Christian-Muslim Relations in the 21st Century; Talbi, Islam
and Dialogue 143-144
[27]ibid.
[28]Cornelius
AfebuOmonokhue, Dialogue in Context: A
Nigerian Experience, Virtual Insignia Press, 2014 P. 72
[29]Joseph
Omoregbe, Comparative Religion:
Christianity and Other World Religions in Dialogue; Joja Press Limited,
2002 P.53
[30]Op. cit. Afebu “Dialogue in Context” P. 86
[31]John
Cardinal O. Onaiyekan, “Seeking Common Grounds: Inter-Religious Dialogue in
African”. The Collected Writings Vol
1(1978-2013). Pauline Publications 2013
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