Article Citation: Ebere R. Adigbuo (2020). Africa and the Two World Wars: Involvement and Impact. DEGEL: The Journal of the Faculty of Arts and Islamic Studies, Vol. 18, No. 2. ISSN 0794-9316
AFRICA AND THE TWO WORLD WARS: INVOLVEMENT AND IMPACT
By
Ebere R Adigbuo
Abstract
Africa has for years been seen as
a continent without history. Some analysts justify the European conquest and
subjugation of Africans as a civilizing mission, the euphemism for marked
interests. Nations over the years have protected their interests through
diplomatic mechanisms and the use of force, particularly where diplomacy is
ineffective. The World War 1 and 11 are no exceptions; these wars were fought
to protect the significant interests of the belligerents. But why was Africa
dragged into two global wars? What are the socio-political impacts of these
wars on Africa? Resting on applied research method, that relies primarily on
secondary sources, this study examines the involvement and impact of these
global wars on Africa.
Introduction
During the 20th
Century, the world was twice drawn into unprecedented wars of global character
known as the First and Second World Wars. These conflicts have since been
considered among the most major events in the contemporary history of mankind
since 1900. Notable among the impacts of the wars on world history include the
restructuring of the global political map as well as the establishment and
proliferation of international organizations charged with issues of global
peace and security. However, while the wars raged, most of Africa merely
existed as colonial possessions of European powers. As such, there has been the
tendency to neglect Africa’s involvement in the world wars, thereby ignoring
the impacts of the wars for Africa’s socio-economic and political development.
This paper therefore seeks to
examine the two world wars of the 20th century with focus on the
nature of Africa’s involvement alongside the impact of the global conflicts on
socio-economic and political developments in Africa. The paper does not however
concern itself with discussing the trajectories of the war, except that which
is considered relevant for understanding the place of Africa in contemporary
international relations since the 20th Century. It is on this note
that the paper is divided into four sections, starting with this introduction.
The second section assesses the First World War in relation to Africa’s
involvement alongside impacts of the war for the continent; the third part of
the paper focuses on Africa’s involvement as well as the impacts of the Second
World War on the continent. The fourth and final section is the conclusion.
The First World War: Background
The First World War which is also
known as the Great War1, lasted between 1914 and 1918, and has been
described as an overwhelming disaster from which everything else in the
twentieth century stemmed.[1] While
the above statement may be accused of over-generalisation, it however retains
some amount of validity especially with regards to events relating to
international relations. Notable among the outcomes of the war include: the
dissolution of four empires, weakening of the economic and political base of
surviving empires, as well as a peace settlements which set the world on the
path for another World War. One may therefore wonder why such an international
conflict had erupted at the time it did.
Indeed, several factors have over
the years been linked to the outbreak of the First World War. However, in this
paper the traditional levels of analysis in International Relations are adopted
in explaining the outbreak of the war. These include the individual, state and
international levels of analysis. At the individual level, Stoessinger
demonstrates that Emperors and statesmen on all sides of the war had become too
weak to control an already tensed situation in Europe following the
assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand; this therefore resulted in the
dominance of military planners in decision making.[2]Stoessinger
stresses that given the unrelenting rigidity of military schedules and
timetables on all sides, the Great War had become inevitable. In the same vein,
at the domestic level, issues such as aggressive German policies, nationalism
as well as a positive perception of warfare across European states, may be
considered as factors that explain the outbreak of the war. At the
international level of analysis, the alliance system prevalent in Europe at the
time, unification of German, unification of Italy as well as arms race may
usefully provide explanation for the outbreak of the international conflict.
Nevertheless, details of the
causes of the First World War do not immediately concern this paper. Instead,
what is important to note is that the war which lasted for four years, three
months and one week, was of huge significance to contemporary international
relations. After the war, new nation-states emerged in Europe; the United
States became a great power; communism was established in the Soviet Union;
Germany was humiliated and made to bear the guilt for the war; the stage was
thus set for another global conflict. Nonetheless, from these enumerated
consequences of the First World War, no mention is made of Africa. Can we
therefore assume that Africa does not have a place in the history of the First
World War? It is in finding answer to this question that it becomes necessary
to consider the extent to which Africa was involved in the Great War.
Nature of Involvement
Indeed, contrary to conventional
knowledge which considers Europe as the major theatre of the First World War,
it is important to note that the war actually began and ended in Africa;
moreover, it was in Africa that the war was fought for its longest period.[3]
Historical accounts of the war reveal that it was an African, Alhaji Grunshi of
the West African Frontier Force (WAFF), who fired the first shot by British
troops during WWI, when Britain and France invaded German Togoland on August 7,
1914.[4]More so,
after the armistice which officially ended the world war on November 11, 1918,
hostilities continued in Africa where news of the armistice did not arrive in
time. The war therefore lingered till November 25, 1918 in Tanganyika, present
day Tanzania, when Germany’s last infantry column surrendered to British
forces.
An interesting aspect of Africa’s
involvement in WWI is the fact that Africans from many countries served in both
sides of the conflict in support of their respective colonial authorities. The
war in Africa therefore meant that Africans had to fight against themselves at
the prompting of the colonialists. Among the main contributing countries to the
war included Nigeria, French West Africa, South Africa, Zimbabwe, Sierra Leone,
Uganda, The Gambia, Malawi, Kenya and Ghana. France enlisted a total of about
200,000 Africans to fight on her side against the Germans, while Britain
enlisted about 390,000 men from Kenya, Uganda and Nyasaland who served not only
as combatant soldiers, but also as carriers and auxiliary troops.[5]
In Nigeria, British colonial authorities in 1917 had to conscript 4,000
auxiliary troops every year to help combatant soldiers prosecute the war.[6]
In terms of the auxiliary roles
played by Africans during the war, Kathleen Bomani claims that for every
soldier, French, German and British troops used at least four native carriers,
including women and children, whose duties were to convey food supplies, arms
and even artillery. These auxiliary conscripts also cooked, scrubbed and tended
to the needs of the soldiers and in several cases often died of exhaustion,
malnutrition and disease.[7] Bomani
furthers that of the 105,000 deaths recorded among British forces in East
Africa, 90% were auxiliary conscripts with Kenya alone losing about 45,000
persons in the East Africa campaign.[8]
Historical reports of the war claim that over a million people died in East
Africa alone, as a result of direct consequences of the war.[9] Crowder
points out that even the slave trade at its height, did not involve on an
annual basis as many as one-tenth of the total number of Africans that were
enlisted to participate in the First World War.[10]
Thus, in view of Africa’s actual
involvement in the First World War, the point to stress is that rather than
being mere onlookers, isolated from the events of WWI, Africans were indeed
actively involved in the global conflict, both in Europe and on African soil.
African theatres of the First World War include: Morocco where the Zaian War
was fought between France and a confederation of Berber tribes between 1914 and
1921. Also, there was fighting in Cyrenaica (in present day Libya), as well as
an Anglo-Egyptian expedition in Darfur. The war also raged in Togoland, German
Kamerun (now spelt as Cameroun), Namibia, Angola as well as Somaliland. The war
was perhaps longest in East Africa where fighting took place in present day
Tanzania, Uganda, Kenya, Malawi and Zambia.
However, the point must be
stressed that while the rest of the world, particularly Europe, had been
enthusiastic about the war, Africans did not exhibit such eagerness to
participate in the war. There are reports of young Africans who deserted,
mutilated themselves, and/or practiced “flight into the bush” or into
neighbouring colonies in order to escape forced conscription.[11] More
so, it is pertinent to note that there was no collective African position
during the war, while during the peace settlements that followed the end of the
war, Africa (with the exception of Liberia) was also not represented.
Non-representation at the Paris Peace Conference does not however suggest that
the war did not hold some lasting implications for Africa’s socio-economic and
political development as would be examined in the next section.
Impact on Social and Economic Developments
World War I impacted immensely on
social, economic and political developments in Africa. Notable among the
impacts of the war on social developments in Africa is the disruption of social
relationships across the continent. War, as a significant social phenomenon, is
a powerful agent of change in societies. Thus, the First World War in colonial
Africa does not deviate from this historical standard. Returnees from the Great
War, regardless of their initial social status, attained new levels of enhanced
respectability and prestige as people who had gone far and wide and had reached
the ends of the world while performing heroic acts. They therefore assumed new
roles, some of which were alien to the social configuration of colonial Africa
before the war, including such roles as: sanitary masters, catechists, clerks,
messengers, policemen, customs officers, as well as radio or gramophone
operators.[12] The WWI
veterans also introduced new dressing habits and instituted other changes
similar to what was obtainable in Europe, thereby launching the path for
bringing Africa to ‘global modernity’.[13]
In the same vein, WWI had also
impacted heavily on economic developments in Africa. For instance, as a result
of the war, Germany lost its trading position in Africa. This therefore
eventuated in the development of French and British enterprise across virtually
all of Africa, having eliminated the German competition. It is important to
note that prior to the outbreak of the war in 1914, Germany played very
prominent roles in trade across Africa, not only within her colonies but also
in British and French colonies. She had therefore lost such control and
influence over the continent, having been defeated at the war.
Furthermore, just as WWI drew
attention to the military potential of African colonies, it as well drew
attention to the economic potentials of the colonies. For instance, prior to
the outbreak of the war in 1914, France remarkably neglected trade with those
of her African colonies acquired during the ‘scramble for Africa’ in the 19th
Century.[14]
However, with the outbreak of the war, the French government set up a
commission in September 1914 to consider trade between France and her African
colonies. The commission was succeeded in November 1915 by another agency
charged with the responsibility of coordinating the supply of colonial products
while in December 1916 colonial governors were asked to encourage production of
all foodstuffs which could be shipped to France.[15]
After the war, the French government redefined their perception of their
African colonies as inexhaustible reservoirs of raw materials with which France
would break free from dependence on foreign imports.[16]
More so, in order to generate
sufficient funds to prosecute the war, colonial authorities in Africa increased
taxation, while some restrictive trading regulations such as the imposition of
limited numbers of licenses to ships as well as the imposition of taxes for
export commodities, were instituted.[17]This
meant at least a temporary modification to Africa’s laissez-faire economic development
which prevailed until the outbreak of the Great War. It is also important to
note that war conditions were to encourage the ever larger expatriate shipping
and commercial companies (such as the British shippers, Elder Dempster; the
trading companies, Swanzy and Millers; and the Ashanti Gold Mining Company) to
dominate further the international trade in cash crops and mining— at the
expense of smaller, often African producers.[18]
Impact on Political Developments
Aside socio-economic developments
that have been discussed above, the First World War also gave rise to crucial
changes in Africa’s political development. To start with, it is important to
note that at the peace settlements that followed the war, Germany was stripped
off her African colonies, which were divided up among the victors under the
mandate system. While European powers had acceded to the principle of
self-determination in Europe, they however failed to grant such concessions to
Africans. Thus, it could be stressed that one of the political developments in
Africa emanating from the outbreak of WWI was the consolidation of imperialism
in Africa.
Notwithstanding, it is also
important to note that some African elites had supported the conscription of
Africans into the war, hoping that Africa’s involvement would lead to political
concessions after the war. However, whether or not they were satisfied with the
sort of political developments that occurred during and after the war remains
in the realm of analysis. Among the remarkable political developments that were
occasioned by the war include the exemption from the system of summary native
jurisdiction, for all army volunteers, their fathers, and migrant workers who
spent more than a year in France. Parliamentary bills emerged that declared the
right of all native soldiers to citizenship. Nonetheless, it should be noted
that while some of these bills were never signed into law, it had indeed
generated some degree of consciousness among the natives as to the possibility
of emancipation in the near future.
According to Michael Crowder, even
though colonial powers had firmly re-established control over their African
colonial possessions after the First World War, “a chink had been seen in their
armour and the white man had been seen to have an Achilles’ heel.”[19] Put
differently, as a result of the war, African soldiers discovered the humanity
and weaknesses of the white man who had earlier been regarded as superman.
Thus, upon returning to Africa after the war, WWI veterans began to spread new
views about the white man thereby giving impetus for resistance against
colonial administration after the war. Nevertheless, while the First World War
had led to dramatic changes in Africa’s socio-economic and political
development, it was indeed the Second World War (as would be examined below)
which consolidated such changes, eventually leading to Africa’s political
independence.
Africa and the Second World War
Background
The Second World War is unarguably
the most destructive conflict in the modern world even after over seven decades
of its end. The war lasted between 1939 and 1945, pitting the Allied powers
against the Axis powers. Germany, Japan, and Italy fought on one side against
Great Britain, France, United States, and later the Soviet Union. Several other
countries participated in the war but essentially had to queue behind any of
the two blocs involved in the conflict. The war led to the death of an
estimated 72 million persons around the world, though exact figures are hard to
come by.
Using the levels of analysis in
international relations, the war could be said to have been caused at the
international level by the manner in which the First World War was settled,
alongside the failure of the League of Nations to maintain international peace
in the face of hostilities among its members. At the domestic level, the rise
of Nazism in Germany, Fascism in Italy, and Bolshevism in the Soviet Union, are
among domestic policies that are considered to have contributed to the outbreak
of the war. Finally, at the individual level of analysis, the role and personal
idiosyncrasies of such leaders as Adolf Hitler, Benito Mussolini, Emperor
Hideki, Winston Churchill and Joseph Stalin become necessary.
Nature of Involvement
Like the First World War, Africa
was once again a major theatre of action during the Second World War, even on a
much larger scale than during the First. In fact, WWII in Africa began as early
as 1935 when Italy occupied the Horn of Africa. It is however noteworthy that
unlike the First when there was actual fighting in virtually all African
sub-regions, fighting in WWII was limited to North Africa and the Horn of
Africa. Nevertheless, this does not suggest that it was only Africans from
within these two regions that participated in the war. Historical records show
that shortly after the outbreak of the war, some 80,000 African troops had been
shipped from French Africa to Europe to fight against the Germans in Europe.[20] Suffice
to recall that the First World War had already given proof of the efficiency of
African soldiers, especially the Senegalese infantrymen who acquired the
reputation as coloured men who engaged themselves in the affairs of white men.[21]
By 1940, French West Africa had
already supplied 127,320 infantrymen, French Equatorial Africa 15,500, and
Madagascar 34,000.[22] The
main achievements of African troops fighting on the Allied side include the
defeat of the Axis powers at El-Alamein in 1943, liberation of Corsica in 1943,
entry into Rome in 1944 as well the war in Provence in 1944.[23] It is
also important to note that African soldiers had also fought on the side of the
Axis powers in spite Hitler’s position that Africans were not to meddle in
European affairs. Italy having already asserted itself as a colonial power in
East Africa, mobilized 200,000 African soldiers to join the war.[24]
Furthermore, aside the
contribution of African personnel to WWII, it is important to note that Africa
had also provided a support base for the Allies. For example, in 1942 alone, a
total of 2,994 aircrafts that were active in the prosecution of the war, used
the N’Djamena International Airport which provided a strategic advantage for
the Allies against the Axis powers.[25]
It is also important to note that it was in Africa (precisely at Algiers) that
a new French government was formed in 1943, since Germany occupied France at
the time. Therefore, the point to stress is that Africa played an active role
during the Second World War in terms of personnel and geostrategic support.
Nonetheless, having participated actively in the war, it again follows that the
war should have left in its trail a range of consequences for Africa. The next section
therefore assesses the social and economic dimensions of the impacts of the
Second War on Africa.
Impact on Socio-Economic Developments
As a result of the Second World
War, French authorities conferred citizenship on Africans within French
colonies. Consequently, these acculturated Africans, living in cities in
Senegal, Ivory Coast, Guinea, among others, no longer had to submit themselves
to discriminatory policies; they were treated as French citizens and had access
to all facilities regardless of such signs as: ‘Africans Only’, ‘Europeans
Only’, or ‘Africans and Dogs Not Allowed.’[26]
It is however important to note that these reforms did not apply to all
Africans especially within British colonies. As such, it cannot be
categorically assumed that the Second World War entirely erased racial
discrimination in Africa. The war however contributed towards the emancipation
of Africa in no small way.
Also, as a result of the war, the
idea of equating Africans with children had been destroyed. This had resulted
from wartime experiences where African soldiers in the battlefield revealed
themselves to be as brave, courageous and intelligent as their white
counterparts. As such, the image of Africans was pulled up from equation with
monkeys, dogs and children, to a position of possessing a common humanity with
the white man. On the other hand, the Second World War destroyed the myth of
European invincibility.[27] During
the war, African soldiers had once again seen the weaknesses of the white man
in the battlefield. They had also seen white men fight against each other such
that upon returning to Africa, the remaining image of the white man as superman
or angel was totally destroyed.
In the same vein, while the First
World War had uplifted the social horizon of ex-servicemen, the Second World
War on its own did not only broaden the horizon of ex-servicemen but those left
behind as well. During the war, individual Africans had begun to listen to the
radio. They therefore followed live reports relating to the prosecution of the
war, commenting on its trends and deciding whether to be pro-German or
pro-Britain in their conversations. By closely monitoring events in Europe
during the war through the mass media, Africans began to develop interest in
world affairs such that their vision of human possibilities began to broaden.[28] By the
end of the war therefore, Africans had already become aware of their rights and
as such were ready to demand independence from colonial authorities.
Another major social development
associated with the Second War in Africa is the development of the education
sector in Africa. The Elliot Commission, for instance in 1945, recommended the
establishment of university colleges in Nigeria and the Gold Coast.[29] Suffice
to note that it was after the war that virtually all the major universities in
black Africa were established. Many of them were established as soon as the war
ended as part of responses to the new developmental imperative in colonial
policy. Noteworthy examples include: Yaba College of Technology which was
established in 1947, the University of Ghana established in 1948, University of
Ibadan (1948), University of Kinshasa (1954), among others.
In addition, urbanisation may be
considered as another impact of WWII on Africa’s social development. Crowder
points out that when Britain lost her colonies in the Far East, attention was
shifted to Africa where such cities as Freetown, Dakar, Port Harcourt,
Leopoldville, Kano and N’Djamena among others, which became staging posts for
the campaigns in North Africa. In order to construct such relevant facilities
for the prosecution of the war as airports, seaports, dock and factories,
workers were required, thereby leading to a boost in the number of inhabitants.
A typical example of such a trend is Leopoldville where population had
multiplied from 40,000 in 1939 to 110,000 by the end of the war in 1945.[30]
As regards economic developments
in Africa which were initiated by the Second World War, the incorporation of
Africa into world’s capitalist economy becomes insightful. As a result of the
war, there was a rising demand for African agricultural products in Europe.
However, the increase in demand for African produce did not reflect on the
price of such commodities. This was because prices were strictly controlled by
colonial authorities who retained the difference between the prices paid to the
producers and that obtained at the international market.[31]
It was at this stage therefore that Africans began to develop the culture of
being producers of primary products in return for Europe’s finished goods. The
war had thus laid the foundation for Africa’s dependence on Europe.
Impact of the war on Political Development
As already noted in this paper,
WWII had affected virtually every aspect of the African society. However, while
the First World War had altered the world’s political map including the map of
Africa, the Second World War did not lead to any major changes in the map of
Africa. Even the United States and the Soviet Union which emerged as the
world’s superpowers at the end of the war, did not make any long-term colonial
acquisitions in Africa. Indeed, political relationship in colonial Africa had
remained largely unchanged in the years that immediately followed the end of
WWII. That notwithstanding, Crowder remarks that the war shattered colonial
calm in Africa as France and Belgium (which were colonial powers at the time)
were overrun by Germany, while the allies dispossessed Italy of her colonies.[32] Only
Spain and Portugal emerged from the war relatively untouched.
Nevertheless, the war has
repeatedly been associated with the decolonization of Africa. According to
Michael Crowder, whereas the war did not necessarily lead to independence in
Africa, it brought about demonstrable changes in the attitudes of the colonial
powers towards their colonies, alongside corresponding changes in the attitudes
of the colonial elites towards their colonial powers.[33]
It was this situation therefore that culminated in the decolonization of
Africa. One major factor that explains such changes in attitudes toward
colonialism in Africa is the fact that after the war, the world’s new
superpowers, USA and USSR, were hostile to the continued existence of European
colonial empires. The former’s hostility to colonialism was earlier shown in
the Atlantic Charter which preceded America’s involvement in WWII
The Atlantic Charter was signed
between the United States and Britain. The Charter affirmed the ‘right of all
people to choose the form of government in which they will live.’ At the end of
the war however, Winston Churchill, British Prime Minister claimed that the
principles enshrined in the Charter did not necessarily apply to Africa. In the
same vein, France maintained that the future of its African territories was not
self-government but rather greater political freedom within the framework of a
‘greater France’. Thus, colonialism in Africa persisted given the failure of
the Atlantic Charter to provide the framework for Africa’s independence.
However, the attention of the world, particularly the two newly emergent
superpowers, had been drawn to the nature of colonialism. Consequently, in the
events that followed, British and French authorities introduced a range of
reforms targeted at presenting colonialism in good lights.
Meanwhile, the United Nations had
as well transformed the perception of empire with the establishment of the
Trusteeship Council which provided a forum in which the records of colonial
powers could be challenged or condemned. Thus, the image of colonialism had
been so tarnished that overseas territories no longer represented a source of
pride and grandeur for the mother country, but a source of embarrassment which
constantly needed to be justified through socio-economic and political reforms.
This period had however coincided with the rise of nationalism, such that
according to Crowder, no sooner had reforms been presented than they were
declared inadequate.[34]
A clear demonstration of the
situation described by Crowder is found in Nigeria’s constitutional
development. For twenty four years, Nigeria’s colonial constitution remained
largely unchanged. However, as soon as WWII ended, the 1946 Constitution came
into being; as soon as the constitution took its effect, it was declared
inadequate, as nationalists demanded better concessions which led to the 1951
constitution. Again, the 1951 constitution was widely criticised such that in
1954, another constitution was introduced while in 1957, a delegation had been
sent to London to put together yet another new constitution for Nigeria. Thus,
the point to stress is that having gained exposure during the Second World War,
African nationalist leaders had become so assertive that they were able to set
Africa on a pathway which culminated in independence during the latter half of
the 20th Century.
However, there have been the
debate among colonial historians as to whether it was the nationalists that
actually took independence from their European colonial masters or it was the
Europeans that willingly granted independence to their African colonies.[35] While
this paper does not seek to delve into such an argument, it rather stresses
that for both sides of the debate, the Second World War is a recurrent
denominator. First, for the argument that independence was simply granted by
the European colonizers regardless of nationalist activities, the explanation
that follows is that the war left European powers too weakened and war-weary to
continue their grip on Africa. On the other hand, if nationalism is credited
for Africa’s independence, the role of the Second World War towards the rise of
nationalism cannot be wished away.
Nationalism in this study is taken
to mean a common consciousness of oppression, exploitation and humiliation
among Africans which thereby gave rise to anti-colonial feelings and
activities.[36] While
the origin of nationalism in Africa predates the outbreak of the First World
War, Crowder stresses that the Second World War matured African nationalism.[37] This is
because aside from the fact that the war revealed the humanity of the white
man, it as well created new social and economic conditions which the
nationalists were able to exploit in order to persuade the colonial governments
that they had a growing support for their cause. In turn, these new conditions
also mounted pressure on the nationalists to make more urgent their demands for
independence.
Commenting on the impact of WWII
to the rise of nationalism, Sithole stresses that among the different impacts
of the Second World War on Africa was the fact that the war led to the
awakening of the people of Africa. In his words, “during the war, Africans came
in contact with practically all the peoples of the earth, …the so-called
civilised and peaceful and orderly white people mercilessly butchering one
another just as his so-called savage ancestors had done in tribal wars.”[38] They
therefore did not understand why colonialism should continue based on the
pretext that Africans were savages who needed civilization.[39]A
valid example of the role of WWII ex-servicemen in African nationalism is the
Accra riots of 1948 which was organized by ex-servicemen against living
conditions, and has been inexorably linked to Ghana’s independence in 1957.[40]
Conclusion
The two world wars of the 20th
Century were indeed catastrophic events which did not only lead to the death of
several million people but as well to a number of radical changes in the
world’s socio-political landscape. More importantly, with regards to Africa in
contemporary international relations, the wars marked a watershed in Africa’s
history. Africans after the wars had been convinced of the fundamental errors
inherent in the nature of Africa’s relations with Europe at the time. Thus, in
years to come, Africans became more assertive in their demands for sweeping
socio-economic and political reforms. Such demands produced a range of
developments which climaxed with the attainment of independence in the latter
half of the 20th Century.
In this paper, Africa’s
involvement in the two world wars has been discussed alongside the impact of
the wars on Africa’s socio-economic and political development. The paper
stresses that whereas Africa was still much under colonial rule during the
world war years, its people and territory had been directly involved in the
global conflicts. In furtherance, Africa’s involvement in the two world wars is
used to explain a range of socio-economic and political developments in Africa
during and after the world wars.
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