Article Citation: Joshua Sarah Kwari, Okoronkwo Enyinnaya & Mshelia Halilu Emmanuel (2018). Strategies in Simplification of English Consonant Cluster by Some Nigerian Speakers: A Study of Selected Students of Usmanu Danfodiyo University, Sokoto. DEGEL: The Journal of the Faculty of Arts and Islamic Studies, Vol. 16. ISSN 0794-9316
STRATEGIES
IN SIMPLIFICATION OF ENGLISH CONSONANT CLUSTER BY SOME NIGERIAN SPEAKERS: A
STUDY OF SELECTED STUDENTS OF USMANU ƊANFODIYO UNIVERSITY, SOKOTO
By
Joshua Sarah Kwari & Okoronkwo Enyinnaya
School of Matriculation Studies
Usmanu Ɗanfodiyo University, Sokoto
&
Mshelia Halilu Emmanuel
Department of Pharmacognosy and Ethnopharmacy
Usmanu Ɗanfodiyo University, Sokoto
Abstract
Phonological problems are difficulties the second language learner
encounters when learning a foreign language which affects pronunciation of
words. Nigerian English as a variety has been made possible through the
interference of mother tongue (L1). Though the review of literature does not
reveal any study on consonant cluster simplification in Nigerian English, yet
it has been observed that Nigerians have a tendency to simplify English
consonant clusters by deletion of some segments from the cluster and insertion
of vowels and so on. This research was aimed to determine the consonant cluster
simplification methods employed by the Nigerian speakers of English. In order
to carry out this investigation, structured questionnaire was administered to
40 respondents comprising of 10 Igbos, 10 Yorubas, 10 Hausas and 10 from other
languages. Each respondent was made to pronounce the words containing consonant
clusters and recordings were made simultaneously with the aid of phone
recorder. The result showed 29% of Nigerian speakers of English engaged in
epenthesis to suit their pronuncaition. 21% of Nigerian speakers of English
engaged in metathesis to suit their spoken English. 9% of Nigerian speakers of
English engaged in apocope in their spoken English. 30 % of Nigerian speakers
of English engaged in paragoge at the word final cluster. It has been observed
that all the ethnic groups engaged in epenthesis which was highly observed
among the Hausa ethnic group. Apocope and prothesis was more in Igbo and Yoruba
ethnic groups. This reseach has justify that Nigerian speakers of English
engage in all forms of consonant cluster simplification to suit their spoken
English.
Introduction
Nigerian spoken English has been confirmed as different from the
standard forms by earlier researches (Jibril 1982; Jowitt 1991; Eka 1985;
Udofot 1997; Akinjobi 2004). Many differences have been ascribed to mother
tongue influence, English being a second language to many Nigerians. Where two
languages interact, the native language has been established as a vital tool in
the process of learning a target language. Some scholars believe that the
inter-lingual experience of the learner is built upon his first language
background (Huang 2011) and that in the acquisition of a second language,
numerous factors interact simultaneously, including the patterns of the first
language (L1), the patterns of the target language (L2) and the universals of
language (Wiltshire 2004). This is the tenet of Transfer Hypothesis (TH)
credited Lado (1957) which proposes that where a similarity exists between the
subsystems of the source language and target language, easy learning takes
place, and where there is significant difference between the two languages,
difficulty will be experienced.
Most Nigerian languages
have very simple syllabic systems (CV) as compared to Standard English with a
complex syllabic system that could allow as many as three consonants to
constitute the onset and four consonants to constitute the coda (C3VC4)
(Jabbari and Samavarchi 2011). As stated earlier by Lado (1957), there is
tendency for a Nigerian speaker of English to simplify the complex consonant
cluster system of English so as to suit him in his pronunciation.
Researches that were
previously conducted on non-native English varieties have confirmed that the
complex consonant cluster system of Standard English is often simplified by
non-native speakers with simple syllabic structures by processes such as
epenthesis and deletion (Jabbari and Samavarchi 2011; Altenberg 2005; Kabak and
Idsardi 2007). This study focuses on deletion and insertion of vowels as a
simplification process for Nigerians when confronted with the complex syllable
system of Standard English.
Most of the time,
mispronunciation leads to communication failure and the inability of a
non-native user to pronounce English words appropriately due to a deletion of a
consonant which may result in communicative incompetence. Most of the time,
mispronunciation leads to communication failure and the inability of a
non-native user to pronounce English words appropriately due to a deletion of a
consonant which may result in communicative incompetence. The research of Kabak
and Idsardi (2007) on non-native production of consonant clusters have
confirmed consonant cluster simplification by epenthesis and deletion. Though
the review of literature does not reveal any study on consonant cluster
simplification in Nigerian English, yet it has been observed that Nigerians
have a tendency to simplify English consonants by deletion of some segments
from the cluster and insertion of vowels and so on.
There is no generally
accepted definition of a syllable since the criteria we can use can be so
different. Something that everybody will accept will be, however, that
prominence that plays an important part in identifying the number of syllables
in an utterance. Vowels are the most sonorous sounds human beings produce and
when we are asked to count the syllables in a given word, phrase or sentence,
what is actually counting is roughly the number of vocalic segments – simple or
complex – that occur in that sequence of sounds. The presence of a vowel or of
a sound having a high degree of sonority will then be an obligatory element in
the configuration of what we call a syllable. There are other sonorous sounds
beside the vowel because; English syllables can arguably contain certain
consonants, as their most sonorous element (Matthew 1999; Nadia 2012). Since
the vowel – or another highly sonorous sound – is at the core of the syllable,
it is called the nucleus of that syllable. The sounds either
preceding the vowel or coming after it are necessarily less sonorous than the
vowels and unlike the nucleus they are optional elements in the make-up of the
syllable. The basic configuration or template of an English
syllable will therefore be (C)V(C) – the parentheses marking the optional
character of the presence of the consonants in the respective positions. The
part of the syllable preceding the nucleus is called the onset of
the syllable (Melissa 2008; Amélie 2000). The non –vocalic elements coming
after the nucleus are called the coda of the syllable. The
nucleus and the coda together are often referred to as the rhyme of
the syllable by analogy with the last part of a word that rhymes with the end
of the word in the next line in a piece of poetry. It is, however, the nucleus,
that is the essential part of the rhyme and of the whole syllable. The
prominence of the nucleus over the other elements in the syllable has been
likened to that of heads over the other elements in a syntactic structure.
Phonology is with “the
sounds of language” which has traditionally focused largely on the study of the
systems of phonemes in a particular language which is called phonemics or
phonematics but also covers linguistics analysis at either word level (syllables,
onset and rimeand articulatory gestures) or at levels of study equivalent
organizational system in sign languages. The way sounds are patterned or
arranged in every language differs, every language has its own phonology; thus,
the phonology of English is different from that of Hausa, Igbo or Yoruba. Nigeria
has many languages and dialects. The Hausa language is spoken mostly in the
Northern part, Yoruba language in the South- West and the Igbo language in the
South-East.
The syllable structure of
the Hausa language can be represented as CV/CVV (Sani 2005; Shehu
2016). The Hausa language belongs to the Chadik branch of Afro-aisatic with
about 50 million of its speakers in Nigeria, Niger, Togo, Cameroon and Ghana.
Hausa has the largest number of native speakers than any other language in the
sub-saharan Africa (Wells, 2006). Hausa language is one of the three major
languages spoken in Nigeria and has the largest speaker population particularly
in the Northern part of the country (Shehu 2016). The syllable structure of Hausa
language is an open one (i.e. words in the language typically begin with
consonants and ends with vowel sounds) and it is composed of consonant followed
by a vowel. The structure can be represented as CV/CVV. On the other hand, the
closed syllable is made up of a consonant followed by a short vowel and another
consonant respectively (i.e. CVC) (Sani 2005; Shehu 2016).
The syllable structure of
the Yoruba language is the system-CV type (Campbell 1991). Yoruba
is a tone language whose many varieties are spoken across West Africa with
about 20 million native speakers. It is spoken natively in Nigeria as well as
the neighbouring countries of the Republic of Benin, Togo, Sierra-leone and
Ghana (Campbell 1991). Yoruba is considered as one of the three major languages
in Nigeria (Campbell 1991). The Yoruba language like other Niger-Congo language
operates the open syllable system-CV type. It has V, CV, CVV, syllable
structure. The syllable structure of Yoruba language
The syllable structure of
the Igbo language is the CV type (Obianika 2013). The Igbo language
has open syllables. The language has no consonant clusters. The basic Igbo
syllable is CV (Obianika 2013). Though the review of literature does not
reveal any study on consonant cluster simplification in Nigerian English, yet
it has been observed that Nigerians have a tendency to simplify English
consonants by deletion of some segments from the cluster and insertion of
vowels and so on. This present study is designed to establish the extent of the
prevalence of cluster simplification among selected speakers (Hausa, Yoruba,
Igbo and few others) of Nigerian English and to determine strategies Nigerian
speakers of English adopt in simplifying consonant clusters in their spoken
English.
Research Methodology
Research Design
The survey approach was used in carrying out the research. This
approach is an organized attempt to check, analyze, and present the challenges
faced by Nigerian speakers of English that led to the simplification of some
consonant clustering words.
Sample Population/
Sampling Technique
The population used in this study includes the users of English in
Nigeria who are born and educated in Nigeria and hold at least a bachelor’s
degree in any field of study. This selection is done in order to determine the
different strategies adopted in consonant cluster simplification by these
speakers. The research was conducted on speakers of English in Usmanu Ɗanfodiyo University, Sokoto with minimum of
first degree in any field. The selection does not depend on, occupation and
marital status but it depends on age, ethnicity, and individual’s ability to
read and speak the language.
A total of forty (40)
educated Nigerians were randomly selected as the sample size. The sample size
consists of twenty males and twenty females. The stratified random sampling
technique was used in this research. This is because it is the purest of probability
sampling where an equal chance of selection is provided due to the size of
population of Nigerians that speak English. Each stratum was sampled as an
independent sub-population, out of which individual elements were randomly
selected. The technique is suitable for this research considering the fact that
it is often impossible to identify every member of the population and the
variables such as ethnicity and ability to speak English. These were used as
parameters for selecting the members of the population. Each of these variables
is believed to have an effect on the language experience of the respondents.
Therefore, membership was stratified according to ethnicities which include:
Hausa, Yoruba, Igbo and others, and then once ability to speak English. Dividing
the population into distinct independent strata will assist in drawing
inference about specific sub-group that might be loss in a more generalized
random sampling.
Research instruments
The main instrument used for data collection was phone recorder
(Infinix Note 2). Combinations of instruments were used in data collection. The
primary data was collected using phone recorder while the secondary data was
collected using the direct questionnaire. The questionnaire was presented to
the subjects consisting of three sections; section A (Bio-data), section B
(Languages Spoken) and in section C, a total of 15 words were designed for the
respondents to read and produce orally for the purpose of this research.
Oral rendition
Tape recording was used in the conduct of this research. It was
used in order to identify the nature of simplification of consonant clusters,
the oral or verbalized production of words by all the forty respondents. The
recording serves as an evidence of conducting the research and as a referral
for the analysis of the result of the study. The data was obtained with the aid
of a mobile phone recorder. The advantage of the recording is that it can be
played and studied extensively no matter the length of time it takes. Heritage
and Akinson (1984) noted that the use of such recorded material has the
additional advantage of providing the listener and to a lesser extent, the
readers of research report with direct access to the data which analytical
claims were made.
Method of Data Collection
The collection of data was conducted by the researcher in a quite
environment to avoid distractions. Each respondent was observed individually. A
list of words which include: 1. Scream 2.Spring 3.Strategy 4.Splash 5.Sprite
6.Flask 7.Spectacle 8. Drink 9. Triple 10. Smoke11. Stream12. Treats13. Street
14.Measles and15.Strike was presented to the respondents to produce verbally to
the hearing of the researcher. The respondents were given sufficient time to
read each word verbally twice.
Data Analysis and Data
Presentation
The data collected through the primary sources from forty
respondents were transcribed, analyzed and then the areas of simplifications
were highlighted. The researcher then play’s back the tape used in collecting
data in order to be able to identify errors made by the respondents. The
transcribed (observed) data were presented in a tabular form based on the
identified Nigerian languages. Simple percentages and thereafter the
descriptive approach were used to interpret the data. The raw data obtained from
forty respondents were analyzed and interpreted. These are presented in the
following Tables.
Table 1: Transcribed Data of Consonant Clusters simplifications by
Hausa Speakers of English
|
S/No. |
Word |
RP
Representation. |
Obs.
Pron. Resp.1 |
Obs. Pron. Resp. 2 |
Obs.
Pron. Resp. 3 |
Obs.
Pron. Resp. 4 |
Obs.
Pron. Resp. 5 |
Obs.
Pron. Resp. 6 |
Obs.
Pron. Resp. 7 |
Obs.
Pron. Resp. 8 |
Obs.
Pron. Resp.9 |
Obs.
Pron. Resp.10 |
|
1 |
Scream |
/skri:m/ |
/strəik/ |
/sikri:m/ |
/skri:m/ |
/skri:m/ |
/sikri:m/ |
/skri:m/ |
/skri:m/ |
/skri:m/ |
/stri:m/ |
/skri:m/ |
|
2 |
Spring |
/spriŋ/ |
/spriŋ/ |
/sfriŋ/ |
/spriŋ/ |
/spriŋ/ |
/sipriŋ/ |
/sipriŋ/ |
/spriŋ/ |
/spriŋk/ |
/spriŋ/ |
/spriŋ/ |
|
3 |
Strategy |
/strᴂtədƷi/ |
/strᴂtədƷi/ |
/strᴂtədƷi/ |
/strᴂtədƷi/ |
/strᴂtədƷi/ |
/strᴂtadƷi/ |
/strᴂtadƷi/ |
/strᴂtadƷi/ |
/strᴂtədƷi/ |
/strᴂtəgi/ |
/strᴂtədƷi/ |
|
4 |
Splash |
/splᴂʃ / |
/splᴂʃ / |
/splᴂʃ/ |
/siplᴂs/ |
/siplᴂsh/ |
/siplᴂʃ/ |
/siplᴂʃ/ |
/splaʃ/ |
/splᴂʃ/ |
/sflᴂʃ/ |
/splᴂʃ / |
|
5 |
Sprite |
/sprait/ |
/sprait/ |
/si:prait/ |
sprait/ |
/sprait/ |
/sprait/ |
/siprait/ |
/sprait/ |
/sprəit/ |
/spriat/ |
/sprait/ |
|
6 |
Flask |
/fla:sk/ |
/fla:sk/ |
/fla:sk/ |
/fla:sk/ |
/fla:sk/ |
/fla:sk/ |
/pla:sk/ |
/fla:sk/ |
/fla:s/ |
/fla:k/ |
/fla:sk/ |
|
7 |
Spectacle |
/spektəkl/ |
/si:pektəkul/ |
/spektətkul/ |
/spektəkl/ |
/spektəkul/ |
/spektəkul/ |
/spektəkul/ |
/spektəkl/ |
/spektəkul/ |
/spectəkul/ |
/spektəkl/ |
|
8 |
Drink |
/driŋk/ |
/driŋk/ |
/driŋk/ |
/driŋk/ |
/driŋk/ |
/driŋk/ |
/driŋk/ |
/driŋk/ |
/driŋk/ |
/driŋk/ |
/driŋk/ |
|
9 |
Triple |
/tripl/ |
/tripl/ |
/tiripl/ |
/tripl/ |
/tri:pul/ |
/tri:pul/ |
/tri:pul/ |
/tri:pul/ |
/tri:pul/ |
/tripul/ |
/tripl/ |
|
10 |
Smoke |
/sməʊk/ |
/smɔ:k/ |
/sməʊk/ |
/smɔ:k/ |
/smɔ:k/ |
/smɔ:k/ |
/sməʊk/ |
/sməʊk/ |
/sməʊk |
/smɔ:k/ |
/sməʊk/ |
|
11 |
Stream |
/stri:m/ |
/si:tri:m/ |
/stri:m/ |
/stri:m/ |
/stri:m/ |
/sitri:m/ |
/stri:m/ |
/stri:m/ |
/stri:m/ |
/stri:m/ |
/stri:m/ |
|
12 |
Treats |
/tri:ts/ |
/tri:ts/ |
/tri:ts/ |
/tri:ts/ |
/tri:ts/ |
/tret/ |
/tri:ts/ |
/tri:ts/ |
/tri:ts/ |
/tri:ts/ |
/tri:ts/ |
|
13 |
Street |
/stri:t/ |
/stri:ts/ |
/sitri:t/ |
/sitri:ts/ |
/sitri:t/ |
/stri:t/ |
/stri:ts/ |
/stri:t/ |
/stri:t/ |
/stri:t/ |
/stri:t/ |
|
14 |
Measles |
/mi:zlz/ |
/mi:sls/ |
/mi:zls/ |
/mi:zls/ |
/mi:zls/ |
/misls/ |
/mi:sls/ |
/mi:zls/ |
/strəik/ |
/mi:zls |
/mi:zlz/ |
|
15 |
Strike |
/strəik/ |
/strəik/ |
/sitrəik/ |
/strəik/ |
/strəik/ |
/strəik/ |
/strəik/ |
/strəik/ |
/mi:zls/ |
/strəik/ |
/strəik/ |
Key: Obs = observed; Pron =
Pronunciation and Resp = Respondent
Table 1, presents the
transcribed data of consonant clusters simplifications by Hausa (L1) Nigerian
speakers of English. Respondent 1 simplified 5 out of fifteen words, engaged in
epenthesis in 3 words and apocope in 2 words. The respondents did not engage in
prosthesis, syncope and metathesis to the words given. The highest form of
simplification adopted by this respondent is epenthesis. Respondent 2
simplified 8 out of fifteen, engaged in epenthesis and apocope in 3 words. The
respondent did not engage in prothesis. Therefore, respondent 3 engaged more in
epenthesis. Respondent 3 simplified 6 out of fifteen words and did not engage
in the other forms of simplification. Four out of fifteen were epenthesis and
one was apocope. Respondent 3 therefore, engaged more in epenthesis. Respondent
4 simplified 5 out of 15 words engaging in epenthesis and apocope. The highest
adaptation engaged here is epenthesis. Respondent 5 simplified 8 out of 15
words engaging in epenthesis of 6 out 15, apocope of 1 out of 15 and metathesis
1 out of 15 and 2 others were surface realized. Epenthesis was the highest
adaptation engaged by this respondent. Respondent 6 simplified 9 out of 15
words. This respondent engaged in epenthesis in 5 words, prosthesis in 2 words
and surface realized in 2 words. Epenthesis is the highest adaptation engaged
by the respondent. Respondent 7 simplified 2 out of 15 words engaging in 1
epenthesis and 1 metathesis and also engaged in surface realization. The
respondent did not engage in the other forms of simplification. Respondent 8
simplified 5 out of 15 words, testing this variable, the respondent engaged in
paragoge in one word, apocope in one word, epenthesis in two words and
metathesis in 1 word. Respondent 9 simplified 6 out of 15 words
tested, engaging in apocope of 2 out of 15, metathesis of 2 out of 15,
epenthesis of 2 out of 15. The respondent engaged in equal simplification.
Respondent 10 did not engage in any form of simplification.
|
S/No. |
Word |
RP
Representation. |
Obs.
Pron. Resp.11 |
Obs. Pron. Resp. 12 |
Obs.
Pron. Resp. 13 |
Obs.
Pron. Resp. 14 |
Obs.
Pron. Resp. 15 |
Obs.
Pron. Resp. 16 |
Obs.
Pron. Resp. 17 |
Obs.
Pron. Resp. 18 |
Obs.
Pron. Resp.19 |
Obs.
Pron. Resp.20 |
|
1 |
Scream |
/skri:m/ |
/skri:m/ |
/skri:m/ |
/skri:m/ |
/skri:m/ |
/skri:m/ |
/skri:m/ |
/skri:m/ |
/skri:m/ |
/skri:m/ |
/skri:m/ |
|
2 |
Spring |
/spriŋ/ |
/spriŋk/ |
/sipriŋ/ |
/spriŋ/ |
/spriŋ/ |
/spriŋ/ |
/spriŋk/ |
/spriŋk/ |
/spriŋk/ |
/spriŋk/ |
/spriŋ/ |
|
3 |
Strategy |
/strᴂtədƷi/ |
/strᴂtədƷi/ |
/strᴂtədƷi/ |
/strətədƷi/ |
/strᴂtədƷi/ |
/strətədƷi/ |
/strᴂtədƷi/ |
/strᴂtədƷi/ |
/stᴂtədƷi/ |
/stᴂtədƷi/ |
/strᴂtədƷi/ |
|
4 |
Splash |
/splᴂʃ / |
/splᴂʃ/ |
/siplᴂʃ/ |
/splᴂʃ / |
/splᴂʃ / |
/spnᴂʃ/ |
/splᴂʃ / |
/splᴂʃ / |
/splᴂʃ / |
/splᴂʃ / |
/splᴂʃ / |
|
5 |
Sprite |
/sprait/ |
/sprait/ |
/sprait/ |
/sprait/ |
/spirəit/ |
/sprait/ |
/sprait/ |
/sprait/ |
/sprait/ |
/sprait/ |
/sprait/ |
|
6 |
Flask |
/fla:sk/ |
/fla:k/ |
/fla:s/ |
/fla:sk/ |
/fla:sk/ |
/fla:sk/ |
/fla:sk/ |
/fla:sk/ |
/fla:sk/ |
/fla:sk/ |
/fla:sk/ |
|
7 |
Spectacle |
/spektəkl/ |
/spektəkl/ |
/spektəkul/ |
/spektəkl/ |
/spektəkul/ |
/spektəkl/ |
/spektəkl/ |
/spektəkl/ |
/spektəkul/ |
/spektəkul/ |
/spectəkul/ |
|
8 |
Drink |
/driŋk/ |
/driŋk/ |
/driŋk/ |
/driŋk/ |
/driŋk/ |
/driŋk/ |
/driŋk/ |
/driŋk/ |
/driŋk/ |
/driŋk/ |
/driŋk/ |
|
9 |
Triple |
/tripl/ |
/tripl/ |
/tri:pul/ |
/tripl/ |
/tripul/ |
/tripl/ |
/tripl/ |
/tripul/ |
/tripul/ |
/tri:pul/ |
/tri:pul/ |
|
10 |
Smoke |
/sməʊk/ |
/sməʊk/ |
/smɔ:k/ |
/sməʊk/ |
/sməʊk/ |
/sməʊk/ |
/sməʊk/ |
/sməʊk/ |
/sməʊk/ |
/sməʊk/ |
/smɔ:k/ |
|
11 |
Stream |
/stri:m/ |
/stri:m/ |
/sitri:m/ |
/stri:m/ |
/stri:m/ |
/stri:m/ |
/stri:m/ |
/stri:m/ |
/stri:m/ |
/stri:m/ |
/stri:m/ |
|
12 |
Treats |
/tri:ts/ |
/tri:ts/ |
/tri:ts/ |
/tri:ts/ |
/tri:ts/ |
/tri:ts/ |
/tri:ts/ |
/tri:ts/ |
/tri:ts/ |
/tri:ts/ |
/trəits/ |
|
13 |
Street |
/stri:t/ |
/stri:t/ |
/stri:t/ |
/stri:t/ |
/stri:t/ |
/stri:t/ |
/tri:ts/ |
/stri:t/ |
/stri:t/ |
/stri:t/ |
/stri:t/ |
|
14 |
Measles |
/mi:zlz/ |
/mi:zlz/ |
/mi:zls/ |
/mi:zlz/ |
/mi:zlz/ |
/mi:zlz/ |
/mi:zlz/ |
/mi:sls/ |
/mi:zlz |
/mi:zlz/ |
/mi:zlz/ |
|
15 |
Strike |
/strəik/ |
/strəik/ |
/strəik/ |
/strəik/ |
/strəik/ |
/strəik/ |
/strəik/ |
/strəik/ |
/strəik/ |
/strəik/ |
/strəik/ |
Table 2: Transcribed Data of Consonant Clusters simplifications by
Yoruba (L1) Nigerian Speakers of English
Key: Obs = observed; Pron = Pronunciation and Resp = Respondent
Table 2, presents the
transcribed data of consonant clusters simplifications by other Nigerian
speakers of English. Respondent 11 simplified 3 out 15 words, engaging in
paragoge of a consonant and epenthesis. The respondent did not engage in the
other forms of simplification. Respondent 12 simplified 7 out of 15 words,
engaging in epenthesis in of 4 out of 15, metathesis in 1. The respondent above
engaged more in epenthesis than any other mode of simplification. Respondent 13
engaged in only 1 form of simplification which is metathesis of 1 out of 15
words. Respondent 14 simplified 3 out of 15 words engaging in epenthesis only
in 3 out of 15 words and did not engage in any other forms of simplification.
Respondent 15 simplified 2 words out of 15 words, engaging in metathesis of 1
sound in a word and apocope in a word. The respondents above did not engage in
any other forms of simplifications.
Respondent 16 simplified 1
word out of 15 words engaged in paragoge only. The respondent did not engage in
other forms of simplification. Respondent 17 simplified 4 out of 15 words,
engaging in paragoge, epenthesis in 2 words and metathesis in 1 word. Respondent
18 above engaged in most forms of simplification. The respondent engaged in
paragoge of 1 out of 15 words, prothesis in 4 out of 15 words and epenthesis in
2 out of 15 words. The highest form of simplification engaged here is
epenthesis. Respondent 19 engaged in 2 forms of simplification. Paragoge in a
word and epenthesis in 2 words out of 15 words. The highest form of
simplification is epenthesis. Respondents 20 simplified 3 out of 15 words
engaging in epenthesis in 2 words and surface realized 2 words out of 15 words.
Table 3. Transcribed
Data of Consonant Clusters simplifications by Igbo (L1) Nigerian Speakers of
English
|
S/No. |
Word |
RP
Representation. |
Obs.
Pron. Resp.21 |
Obs. Pron. Resp. 22 |
Obs.
Pron. Resp. 23 |
Obs.
Pron. Resp. 24 |
Obs.
Pron. Resp. 25 |
Obs.
Pron. Resp. 26 |
Obs.
Pron. Resp. 27 |
Obs.
Pron. Resp. 28 |
Obs.
Pron. Resp.29 |
Obs.
Pron. Resp.30 |
|
1 |
Scream |
/skri:m/ |
/skri:m/ |
/skri:m/ |
/skri:m/ |
/skri:m/ |
/skri:m/ |
/skri:m/ |
/skri:m/ |
/skri:m/ |
/skri:m/ |
/skri:m/ |
|
2 |
Spring |
/spriŋ/ |
/spriŋ/ |
/spriŋk/ |
/spriŋ/ |
/spriŋk/ |
/spriŋk/ |
/spriŋk/ |
/spriŋk/ |
/spriŋ/ |
/spriŋ/ |
/spriŋ/ |
|
3 |
Strategy |
/strᴂtədƷi/ |
/strᴂtədƷi/ |
/strᴂtədƷi/ |
/strᴂtədƷi/ |
/strᴂtədƷi/ |
/strᴂtədƷi/ |
/spriŋ/ |
/spriŋ/ |
/strᴂtədƷi/ |
/strᴂtədƷi/ |
/strᴂtədƷi/ |
|
4 |
Splash |
/splᴂʃ / |
/splᴂʃ / |
/splᴂʃ / |
/splᴂʃ / |
/splᴂʃ / |
/splᴂʃ / |
/splᴂʃ / |
/splᴂʃ / |
/splᴂʃ / |
/splᴂʃ / |
/splᴂʃ / |
|
5 |
Sprite |
/sprait/ |
/sprait/ |
/siprait/ |
/sprait/ |
/sprait/ |
/sprait/ |
/sprait/ |
/sprait/ |
/sprait/ |
/sprait/ |
/sprait/ |
|
6 |
Flask |
/fla:sk/ |
/fla:ks/ |
/fla:sk/ |
fla:sk/ |
/fla:sk/ |
/fla:sk/ |
/fla:sk/ |
/fla:sk/ |
/fla:sk/ |
/fla:sk/ |
/fla:sk/ |
|
7 |
Spectacle |
/spektəkl/ |
/spektəkul/ |
/spectəkul/ |
/spektəkl/ |
/spektəkl/ |
/spektəkl/ |
/spectəkul/ |
/spectəkul/ |
/spectəkul/ |
/spektəkl/ |
/spectəkul/ |
|
8 |
Drink |
/driŋk/ |
/driŋk/ |
/driŋk/ |
/driŋk/ |
/driŋk/ |
/driŋk/ |
/driŋk/ |
/driŋk/ |
/driŋk/ |
/driŋk/ |
/driŋk/ |
|
9 |
Triple |
/tripl/ |
/tripl/ |
/tripul/ |
/tripl/ |
/tripl/ |
/tripul/ |
/tri:pul/ |
/tripul/ |
/tripul/ |
/tripl/ |
/tri:pul/ |
|
10 |
Smoke |
/sməʊk/ |
/sməʊk/ |
/sməʊk/ |
sməʊk/ |
/sməʊk/ |
/sməʊk/ |
/sməʊk/ |
/smɔ:k/ |
/sməʊk/ |
/sməʊk/ |
/smɔ:k/ |
|
11 |
Stream |
/stri:m/ |
/stri:m/ |
/stri:m/ |
/stri:m/ |
/stri:m/ |
/stri:m/ |
/stri:m/ |
/stri:m/ |
/stri:m/ |
/stri:m/ |
/stri:m/ |
|
12 |
Treats |
/tri:ts/ |
/tri:ts/ |
/trəits/ |
/tri:ts/ |
/tri:ts/ |
/tri:ts/ |
/tri:ts/ |
/trəits/ |
/tri:ts/ |
/tri:ts/ |
/trəits/ |
|
13 |
Street |
/stri:t/ |
/stri:t/ |
/stri:t/ |
Street |
/stri:t/ |
/stri:t/ |
/stri:t/ |
/stri:t/ |
/stri:t/ |
/stri:t/ |
/stri:t/ |
|
14 |
Measles |
/mi:zlz/ |
/mi:zlz/ |
/mi:zls/ |
/mi:zls/ |
/mi:zlz/ |
/mi:zls/ |
/mi:zlz/ |
/mi:zls/ |
/mi:zlz/ |
/mi:zlz/ |
/mi:zlz/ |
|
15 |
Strike |
/strəik/ |
/strəik/ |
/strəik/ |
/strəik/ |
/strəik/ |
/strəik/ |
/strəik/ |
/strəik/ |
/strəik/ |
/strəik/ |
/strəik/ |
Key: Obs = observed; Pron = Pronunciation and Resp = Respondent
Table 3, presents the
transcribed data of consonant clusters simplifications by Igbo Nigerian
speakers of English. Respondent 21 engaged in 3 simplifications out of the 15
words, engaging in metathesis and epenthesis between consonant clusters. The
respondent did not engage in any other forms of simplification. Respondent 22
engaged in paragoge in one word, epenthesis in 3 words, metathesis in one word
and surface realized in one word. Respondent 23 did not engage in other forms
of simplification but rather only engaged in metathesis in 1 word out of 15.
The form of adaption engaged by the respondent is metathesis. Respondent 24
simplified only 1 word out of 15 words engaging in paragoge. Respondents 25
simplified 2 out of 15 words engaging in epenthesis in 1 out of 15 and
metathesis in 1 out of 15. The respondent did not engage in any other forms of
simplification. Respondent 26 simplified 3 out of 15 words tested, engaging in
paragoge of 1 out of 15 and epenthesis of 2 out of 15 words. The respondent engaged
more in epenthesis and paragoge. Respondent 27 engaged in paragoge of 1 out of
15 words, epenthesis of 2 out of 15 and metathesis of 1 out of 15 and surface
realized 2 out of 15 words. The highest adaption is epenthesis. Respondents 28
did not engage in any form of adaption but surface realized 1 out of the 15
words tested. Respondents 29 only engaged in epenthesis of 3 out of 15 words.
Other forms of implications were not engaged by the respondents. Respondent 30
did not engage any form of adaption.
Table 4: Transcribed Data
of Consonant Clusters simplifications by other Nigerian Speakers of English
|
S/No. |
Word |
RP
Representation. |
Obs.
Pron. Resp.31 |
Obs. Pron. Resp. 32 |
Obs.
Pron. Resp. 33 |
Obs.
Pron. Resp. 34 |
Obs.
Pron. Resp. 35 |
Obs.
Pron. Resp.3 6 |
Obs.
Pron. Resp. 37 |
Obs.
Pron. Resp. 38 |
Obs.
Pron. Resp. 39 |
Obs.
Pron. Resp.40 |
|
1 |
Scream |
/skri:m/ |
/skri:m/ |
/skri:m/ |
/spriŋk/ |
/skri:m/ |
/skri:m/ |
/skri:m/ |
/skri:m/ |
/skri:m/ |
/skri:m/ |
/sikri:m/ |
|
2 |
Spring |
/spriŋ/ |
/spriŋ/ |
/spriŋ/ |
/spriŋ/ |
/spriŋ/ |
/spriŋ/ |
/spriŋk/ |
/spriŋ/ |
/spriŋ/ |
/spriŋ/ |
/spriŋ/ |
|
3 |
Strategy |
/strᴂtədƷi/ |
/sitrᴂtədƷi/ |
/strᴂtədƷi/ |
/strᴂtədƷi/ |
/strᴂtədƷi/ |
/strᴂtədƷi/ |
/strᴂtədƷi/ |
/strᴂtədƷi/ |
/strᴂtədƷi/ |
/spriŋ/ |
/strᴂtədƷi/ |
|
4 |
Splash |
/splᴂʃ / |
/splᴂʃ / |
/splᴂʃ / |
/splᴂʃ / |
/splᴂʃ / |
/splᴂʃ / |
/splᴂʃ / |
/splᴂʃ / |
/splᴂʃ / |
/splᴂʃ / |
/splᴂʃ / |
|
5 |
Sprite |
/sprait/ |
/sprait/ |
/sprait/ |
/sprait/ |
/sprait/ |
/sprait/ |
/siprəit/ |
/siprəit/ |
/sprait/ |
/sprait/ |
/sprait/ |
|
6 |
Flask |
/fla:sk/ |
/fla:s/ |
/fla:s/ |
/fa:lsk/ |
/fla:sk/ |
/fla:ks/ |
/fla:sk/ |
/fla:sk/ |
/fla:s/ |
/pla:sk/ |
/fla:sk/ |
|
7 |
Spectacle |
/spektəkl/ |
/spektəkul/ |
/spektəkul/ |
/spektəkul/ |
/spectəkul/ |
/spektəkl/ |
/spectəkul/ |
/spectəkul/ |
/spektəkul/ |
/spektəkl/ |
/spektəkl/ |
|
8 |
Drink |
/driŋk/ |
/driŋk/ |
/driŋk/ |
/driŋk/ |
/driŋk/ |
/driŋk/ |
/driŋk/ |
/driŋk/ |
/driŋk/ |
/driŋk/ |
/driŋk/ |
|
9 |
Triple |
/tripl/ |
/tripl/ |
/tripl/ |
/tri:pul/ |
/tri:pul/ |
/tripul/ |
/tri:pul/ |
/tripul/ |
/tripl/ |
/tripul/ |
/tripl/ |
|
10 |
Smoke |
/sməʊk/ |
/sməʊk/ |
/smɔ:k/ |
/smɔ:k/ |
/sməʊk/ |
/sməʊk/ |
/sməʊk/ |
/sməʊk/ |
/smɔ:k/ |
/sməʊk/ |
/sməʊk/ |
|
11 |
Stream |
/stri:m/ |
/sitri:m/ |
/stri:m/ |
/stri:m/ |
/stri:m/ |
/stri:m/ |
/stri:m/ |
/stri:m/ |
/stri:m/ |
/stri:m/ |
/stri:m/ |
|
12 |
Treats |
/tri:ts/ |
/tri:ts/ |
/tri:ts/ |
/tri:ts/ |
/tri:ts/ |
/tri:ts/ |
/strəts/ |
/tri:ts/ |
/trəts/ |
/tri:ts/ |
/tri:ts/ |
|
13 |
Street |
/stri:t/ |
/stri:t/ |
/stri:t/ |
/stri:t/ |
/stri:t/ |
/stri:t/ |
/stri:t/ |
/stri:t/ |
/stri:t/ |
/stri:t/ |
/stri:t/ |
|
14 |
Measles |
/mi:zlz/ |
/mi:zlz/ |
/mi:zls/ |
/mi:sls/ |
/mi:zls/ |
/mi:zlz/ |
/mi:zlz/ |
/mi:zlz/ |
/mi:zls/ |
/mi:zlz/ |
/mi:zlz/ |
|
15 |
Strike |
/strəik/ |
/strəik/ |
/strəik/ |
/strəik/ |
/strəik/ |
/strəik/ |
/strəik/ |
/strəik/ |
/strəik/ |
/strəik/ |
/strəik/ |
Table 4, presents the
transcribed data of consonant clusters simplifications by other Nigerian
speakers of English. From the, respondent 31 (L1-Tangale) simplified 4 out of
fifteen words and engaged in epentheis in 3 words and apocope in one word. The
highest form of adaptation by this respondent is epenthesis. Respondent 32
(L1-Takad) simplified 3 out of 15 words, the respondent engaged in epenthesis
in 1 out 15 words, apocope in 1 out of 15 and metathesis 1 out of 15 words. The
respondent did not engage in the other forms of simplification. Respondent 33
(L1-Igala) above simplified 5 out of 15 words engaging in paragoge in 2 words,
metathesis in 1 word, epenthesis in 2 words and metathesis in 1 word.
Respondent 34 (L1-Tigun) simplified 3 out of 15 words, engaging in epenthesis
and metathesis. The respondent’s adaption is minimal thus, did not engage in
other forms of simplification.
Respondent 35 (L1-Higgi)
engaged in only two forms of simplification which are metathesis and
epenthesis. Respondent 36 (L1-Idoma) engaged in paragoge and epenthesis, and at
the same time surface realized one word. Respondent 37 (L1-Igala) simplified 3
out of 15 words engaging in epenthesis only. The respondent did not engage in
any other forms of simplification. Respondents 38 (L1-Kataf) simplified 4 out
of 15 engaging apocope, epenthesis of 2 out of 15 words, metathesis of 1 out of
15 words used for testing the respondents and surface realized 2 out of 15
words. Respondent 39 (L1-Igun) engaged in metathesis in 1 word and epenthesis
in 1 word. The respondent did not engage in any other forms of simplification.
Respondent 40 (L1-Bura) engaged in epenthesis in 1 out of 15 words and did not
engage in other forms of simplification. The adaption of respondent 40 is
minimal.
Table 5: Age of the respondents
|
Variable |
Number of
Respondent |
Percentage
(%) |
|
21-25 |
6 |
15.0 |
|
26-30 |
16 |
40.0 |
|
31-35 |
5 |
12.5 |
|
36-40 |
6 |
15.0 |
|
41-45 |
6 |
15.0 |
|
46-50 |
1 |
2.5 |
|
Total |
40 |
100 |
Table
5 above gives a summary of the ages of the respondents. The majority of the
respondents were in their late twenties, representing 40% of the entire sampled
population. Respondents in their early twenties, late thirties and early
forties followed with 15% while those in their early thirties, late forties and
teenagers followed with 12.5%, 2.5% and 0% respectively. With 2.5% of the
sampled population, those in their late forties have the lowest percentage.
Table
6: Gender of the respondents
|
Variable |
Number
of Respondent |
Percentage
(%) |
|
Male |
20 |
50.0 |
|
Female |
20 |
50.0 |
|
Total |
40 |
100 |
Table
6 indicates the gender of the respondents. Both male and female respondents
constituted 50% each of the sampled population.
Table 7: Ethnicity of the respondents
|
Variable |
Number
of Respondent |
Percentage
(%) |
|
Hausa |
10 |
25.0 |
|
Igbo |
10 |
25.0 |
|
Yoruba |
10 |
25.0 |
|
Others |
10 |
25.0 |
|
Total |
40 |
100 |
Table
7 presents the percentage ethnicities of the respondents. The Hausa, Igbo,
Yoruba and other ethnic groups constituted 25% respectively in the sample
population. The ethnicity of the respondents is of importance because it
presents different variety in pronunciation.
Table 8: Schools Attended by respondents
|
Variable |
Number
of Respondent |
Percentage
(%) |
|
Nursery |
22 |
55.0 |
|
Primary |
40 |
100 |
|
Junior
Secondary School |
40 |
100 |
|
Senior
Secondary School |
40 |
100 |
|
University |
40 |
100 |
Table
8, showed the type of schools attended by the respondents. Those who attended
nursery school had 55%, showing that not all respondents had the opportunity to
attend a nursery school. But for primary, junior secondary, senior secondary
and university, all the respondents had attended and constitute a 100%
respectively.
Table
9: Type of School attended by the respondents
|
Variable |
Number
of Respondent |
Percentage
(%) |
|
Government/Public |
23 |
57.5 |
|
Private |
10 |
25.o |
|
Both |
7 |
17.5 |
|
Total |
40 |
100 |
Table
9 showed that most of the respondents had attended a government/ public school
with 57.5%, those who attended private school constituted 25% and those who had
attended both government and private schools at different levels constituted
17.5%.
Table
10: School Location
|
Variable
|
Number
of Respondent |
Percentage
(%) |
|
Urban |
31 |
77.5 |
|
Rural |
6 |
15.0 |
|
Both |
3 |
7.5 |
|
Total
|
40 |
100 |
Table
10 showed 77.5% of the respondents attended schools located at urban areas, 15%
attended in rural areas while 7.5% attended schools in both urban and rural
areas.
Table
11: Frequency of Usage of the English language by respondents
|
Variable |
Number
of Respondent |
Percentage
(%) |
|
Very
often |
22 |
55.0 |
|
Often |
18 |
45.0 |
|
Rarely |
- |
- |
|
Never |
- |
- |
|
Total |
40 |
100 |
Table
11 presents the frequency of usage of the English language, 55% of the
respondents admitted to using English ‘very often’ while 45% use English
‘often’.
Table 12: Frequency of Usage of the English language at School or
work by Respondents
|
Variable |
Number
of Respondent |
Percentage
(%) |
|
Very
often |
30 |
75.0 |
|
Often |
10 |
25.0 |
|
Rarely |
- |
- |
|
Never |
- |
- |
|
Total
|
40 |
100 |
Table
12 indicated the frequencies used by the respondents either in school or at
work. Thus, 75% claimed using the English language ‘very often’ while 25% claim
to use the language ‘often’. These responses are relevant in establishing
whether or not the frequency one uses has an impact on their pronunciation.
Table
13: Number of Respondents without and With Consonant Simplification
|
S/N |
Word |
Without Simplification (Correct) |
With Simplification (Incorrect) |
|
1 |
Scream |
36 |
4 |
|
2 |
Spring |
25 |
15 |
|
3 |
Strategy |
34 |
6 |
|
4 |
Splash |
33 |
7 |
|
5 |
Sprite |
34 |
6 |
|
6 |
Flask |
31 |
9 |
|
7 |
Spectacle |
14 |
26 |
|
8 |
Drink |
40 |
0 |
|
9 |
Triple |
16 |
24 |
|
10 |
Smoke |
29 |
11 |
|
11 |
Stream |
32 |
8 |
|
12 |
Treats |
33 |
7 |
|
13 |
Street |
35 |
5 |
|
14 |
Measles |
20 |
20 |
|
15 |
Strike |
38 |
2 |
Table
13 presents the respondents observed oral rendition of each words by the
respondents. From the table, the word with the highest accuracy of
pronunciation with out any simplification was strike (38 respondents got it
right) while spectacle had the highest incorrect pronunciation with
simplification (26 respondents got it wrong). Table 13 summarizes the
respondent pronunciations of word with consonant clusters. The table also
presents the percentage of words pronounced by the respondents with and without
simplification. From the table, the word drink was pronounced by all
respondents without simplification (i.e.100%). The word spectacle on the other
hand had the highest simplification by the respondents with 65%. Other words
such as strike, scream, street, strategy, splash, treats, stream and flask also
had high percentage of respondents who did not simplify the word. Words like
smoke, spring, and measles had the highest percentage of respondents who
simplified the words.
Table
14: Percentage of Respondents without and With Consonant Simplification
|
S/N |
Word |
% Without Simplification (Correct) |
%With Simplification (Incorrect) |
|
1 |
Scream |
90 |
10.0 |
|
2 |
Spring |
62.5 |
37.5 |
|
3 |
Strategy |
85 |
15.0 |
|
4 |
Splash |
82.5 |
17.5 |
|
5 |
Sprite |
85 |
15.0 |
|
6 |
Flask |
77.5 |
22.5 |
|
7 |
Spectacle |
35 |
65.0 |
|
8 |
Drink |
100 |
0.0 |
|
9 |
Triple |
40 |
60.0 |
|
10 |
Smoke |
72.5 |
27.5 |
|
11 |
Stream |
80 |
20.0 |
|
12 |
Treats |
82.5 |
17.5 |
|
13 |
Street |
87.5 |
12.5 |
|
14 |
Measles |
50 |
50.0 |
|
15 |
Strike |
95 |
5.0 |
Table
14 showed strike had the highest percentage (95%) of accuracy of pronunciation
without simplification while spectacle had 65% of incorrect pronunciation with
simplification.
Discussion
It
was observed that among the forty (40) respondents, each one of them engaged in
some form of simplification in their use of English language. As observed by
the researcher, the simplification type uesd more by the respondents is
epenthesis. Even though it was observed that all the respondeents demonstrated
some elements of simplification in their renditions, some respondents were more
engaged than others. For instance, while some engaged in both epenthesis and
apocope, others engaged in either epenthesis or paragoge.
It
was dicovered that simplification of words by respondents cuts across all ages.
In other words,the ages of the respondents could not determine the kind of
simplification they engage in even though some of the younger respondents were
more proficient than the older ones.
The
findings of this research revealed that there is no correlation between gender
and the type of simplification engaged by the respondents. Both male and female
respondents exhibited tendencies of simplification and both simplification
types were observed in both sexes. Only that some female respondents were more
fashionable in the pronunciation.
However,
the respondents ethnicity had a great impact on the types of simplification.
For instance, it was discovered that Hausa respondents engaged most in
epenthesis between the consonant clusters.Pronunciation of words such as Ɗsipirait] for /sprait/, Ɗspektəkul] for /spektəkl/ etc, were observed. On the same scale, Yoruba respondents were
obsevered to have deleted some consonant clusters. Words with coda that is word
final cluster was deleted as in the word /flas/ for /flask/. The igbo
respondents engaged in both epenthesis and apocope in easing their
pronunciation. For instance, the word /spriŋ/ was pronounced as /spriŋk/ and
/tripl/ as /tripul/. For the other languages, more of epenthesis was observed
basically vowel insertion. The above observation is in agreement with Buhari
(2013), which reported that speakers of Nigerian English adapt to their L1
features in their spoken English and the adaptation comes in the form of
substitution, swapping, insertion, deletion and surface realization of English
sounds.
Even
though the central concern of this research is not the implication of the type
and levels of schools attended by the respondents, it was observed that there
was no significant correspondence between the type of school respondents
attended and the levels they attained because cases of simplification were seen
among almost all the respondents.
The
data from the respondents revealed that frequency of the usage of the English
language can help in reducing the likely pronunciation simplification if proper
corrections are taken. This is because it is one thing to speak English
frequently, and entirely a different thing to speak it well. Most of the
respondents claim to speak English frequently but yet some simplifiation
processes were observed in their pronunciation.
72%
of the respondents engaged in epenthesis in the words given. The words
contained cluters that were broken by these respondents. For instance, words
like TRIPLE and SPECTACLE was broken at the word final by the insertion of /ᵁ/ sound, there by realizing them as /spektᴂkul/ and /tripul/. The /i/ sound was also introduced in words like
SPRAIT,SPLASH, and SPRING, thereby realizing them as /siprait/, /siplᴂʃ/, /spiriŋ/ respectively. These were observed to be common among
almost all the respondents.
52.5%of
the respondents engaged in apocope and metathesis in the words given. This was
observed in the respondents pronunciation of words such as SPRING, SPLASH,
FLASK and MEASLES, thereby realizing them as /sfring/ that is /p/ realized as
/f/, /spnᴂʃ/ /Ɩ/
realized as /n/, /plask/ /f/ realized as /p/ and /mi:zls/ or /mi:sls/ with /z/
realized as /s/ respectively.
22.5%
of the respondents deleted atleast a clustering sound in word the word FLASK,
thereby realizing it as /flas/ and /flak/.
30%
of the respondents added a consonant to the existing one. It was observed in
the word SPRING, the /k/ sound was added at the word final position thereby
realizing ‘spring’ as /spriŋk/. These was observed among the Yoruba and the
Igbo speakers of English.
Summary
of Findings
Based
on the observation made on the forty (40) respondents that were administered a
Direct Questionnaire and were engaged in an oral reindation, the researcher
arrived at a conclusion and deems it fit to reveeal the following:
i. Age dose not determine the degree of consonant cluster
simplification engaged by the speakers of English language in Nigeria. These
simplifications occurs across generations of speakers of English in Nigeria.
ii. Gender has no role in determing whether or not the speaker of
English in Nigeria simplifies his/her spoken English. Speakers of English in
Nigeria regardless of their sexes, simplifiers the language to suit there
spoken English.
iii. Ethnicity plays a significant role in determining the degree of
simplification among the speakers of English in Nigeria.
iv. As observed, the school one attends and its location also plays a
significant role in determing the degree of simplication by the speakres of
English in Nigeria.
v. Frequency of usage of the English language dose not mitigate the
simplification of the language among speakers in Nigeria.
vi. Using English as a medium of instruction in schools does not stop
cluster simplification.
vii. Mother tongue interference is the major cause of cluster
simplification among Nigerian speakers of English.
viii. 29% of Nigerian speakers of English inserted vowels in between
consonant clusters to suit their pronuncaition.
ix. 21% of Nigerian speakers of English substitute sounds to suit
their spoken English.
x. 9% of Nigerian speakers of English delete sounds in their spoken
English.
xi. 30 % of Nigerian speakers of English add consonant sound most at
the word final cluster.
Conclusion
Following
the evidence gathered from this research, it can be concluded that Mother
tongue interference is the major cause of cluster simplification among Nigerian
speakers of English. Also, ethnicity, school one attends and its location
plays a significant role in determining the degree of simplification among the
speakers of English in Nigeria. Nigerian speakers of English engage in cluster
simplification to suit their pronuncaition.
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