Fostering the Practice of Hausa Traditional Medicine in Kano: An Assessment of Government Efforts Since Independence

Cite this article: Umar, A. T. 2025. “Fostering the Practice of Hausa Traditional Medicine in Kano: An Assessment of Government Efforts since Independence”. Sokoto Journal of History Vol. 13, Iss. 01. Pp. 119-130. www.doi.org/10.36349/sokotojh.2025.v13i01.011

FOSTERING THE PRACTICE OF HAUSA TRADITIONAL MEDICINE IN KANO: AN ASSESSMENT OF GOVERNMENT EFFORTS SINCE INDEPENDENCE

By

Ashiru T. Umar

Sule Lamido University, Kafin-Hausa, Jigawa State-Nigeria

Abstract: This paper examines government support for the development and institutionalization of Hausa traditional medicine in Kano between 1960 and 2017, highlighting the role of both the Kano State and Federal Governments in advancing indigenous healthcare practices. It argues that these initiatives increased awareness among practitioners of the need to modernize and professionalize their centuries-old medical traditions. The study situates its analysis within the broader historical evolution of Nigeria’s healthcare system, tracing how colonial medical policies marginalized indigenous healing while privileging Western medicine. Following independence, however, the Nigerian government began to recognize traditional medicine as a vital component of national healthcare, prompted by factors such as the persistence of medical pluralism, the reliance of rural populations on indigenous practitioners, and the inadequacy of modern medical infrastructure. The economic crises of the 1980s, particularly under the Structural Adjustment Programme (SAP), further deepened the healthcare gap, forcing many Nigerians to depend on traditional practitioners for affordable treatment. In response, government efforts sought to regulate and formalize traditional medicine through policies and programs designed to enhance its safety, efficacy, and integration into the public health system. Ultimately, the paper highlights how the historical and socio-economic realities of Kano shaped the evolving relationship between indigenous medical knowledge and state-driven healthcare reforms, revealing both the opportunities and tensions inherent in the modernization of Hausa traditional medicine practice.

Keywords: institutionalization, traditional medicine, Hausa medicine practitioners

Introduction

This paper explores government support for the development of Hausa traditional medicine in Kano between 1960 and 2017. The central argument is based on the premise that initiatives by the Kano State and Federal Governments have increased awareness among Hausa traditional medicine practitioners of the need to advance the centuries-old practice. The discussion opens with a historical examination of the factors that compelled government authorities to initiate efforts toward the institutionalization of traditional medicine in Nigeria, with particular attention to the Hausa medical practices in Kano. It also examines the policies and programmes that supported the recognition of traditional medicine as a vital component of public healthcare delivery. Therefore, it seeks to explore the underlying motivations, implications, and actions taken on this turn towards Hausa traditional medicine, situating the discussion within Kano’s broader healthcare landscape. Traditional medicine is both knowledge and a skill, and its functions are rooted in indigenous beliefs and experiences of different cultures. The practice encompasses therapies, identification of diseases, treatment and prevention methods. Its method and the effectiveness of its outcome are distinct from orthodox medicine practice.^[1] Traditional Medicine as concept by the World Health Organization (WHO) is “health practices, approaches, knowledge, and beliefs incorporating plant, animal, and mineral-based medicines, spiritual therapies, manual techniques, and exercises, applied singularly or in combination to treat, diagnose, and prevent illnesses or maintain well-being.”^[2]

The British colonial administration in Nigeria introduced and promoted orthodox medicine primarily to serve the health needs of colonial officials. These services were gradually extended to the indigenous population, particularly in urban and administrative centres, as part of broader efforts to consolidate colonial control and facilitate effective governance. Throughout Nigeria’s transition from the colonial period, the provision and financing of orthodox healthcare remained the responsibility of the state, while traditional or indigenous medical practice was marginalized and excluded from British colonial health policy in Nigeria. It was only after independence that the central government of Nigeria developed interest with a view to advance indigenous medical practice and explore ways for integration into the mainstream healthcare system.^[3]

Various factors prompted the government to initiate institutionalization of traditional medicine in Nigeria. Firstly, the public health studies acknowledged the nature of Nigeria’s ethnic groups in adopting medical pluralism, using both traditional and orthodox medicines in pursuit of health solutions. ^[4] Secondly, while traditional medicine remained the initial healthcare recourse for most communities, gaps in modern medical provision heightened reliance on traditional practitioners.^[5] Thirdly, the economic downturn of the 1980s, particularly following the Nigeria’s adoption of the Structural Adjustment Programme (SAP) in 1986 by the military regime, played a critical role that pushed away many citizens from orthodox medicine. SAP policies, in particular, imposed drastic cuts on public spending, including the health sector.^[6]  This implementation precipitated a decline in the quality and accessibility of public healthcare service. The reform led to the deterioration of public health centers, acute shortages of essential medicines, and the imposition of user fees. Consequently, access to affordable and quality healthcare services increasingly became limited, particularly in rural areas.^[7] Many families were compelled to prioritize affordability rather than quality in their choice of the service.^[8] In response to persistent gaps in healthcare delivery, the Nigerian government gradually moved to regulate and recognize indigenous healing systems. This shift aimed to mitigate risks associated with unregulated practices and provided a framework for the formal integration of traditional medicine into the public health system.

The Institutional Setting of Pre-colonial Hausa Medicine Practice 

The practitioners of Hausa medicine in Kano were considered to be among the most important professionals that determined social survival and as such, were held with high regard. They were central to the health and general wellbeing of the Hausa society.  The leadership social structure was coordinated in such a way that it recognized and responded to societal needs. The established social framework recognized expertise, facilitated formal recognition, and standardized Hausa medical practice in addition to promoting its professionalism. Each occupation in the different sectors of the economy had its sarki (chief), appointed by the Emir of Kano. The institution of these sarakunan sana’o’i (chiefs of specialization/occupations) was developed together with centralized political system. Whenever the services of craftsmen were required, it was channeled through their guild leaders. The leadership structure  has various headship, with mandate the authority over particular group of experts, such as Sarkin Bori (chief spiritualists), Sarkin Mayu (chief of witchcraft), Sarkin Baka (chief Archers), Sarkin Kira (chief blacksmiths), and Sarkin Dori (chief of orthopedics) as well as Sarkin Aska (chief of barbers/surgeon). Each of the chiefs appoint fellow practitioners into offices and tasked them with responsibilities. The existence of titles such as, Galadima, Waziri, Magaji, and Majidadi reflects the presence of an organized social structure that coordinated activities in pre-colonial institutions, not only in Kano but throughout Hausaland. ^[9] The structure and titles were an important part of the social order in wider Kano society. They showed that there was a clear social system where practitioners were connected and recognized. This system facilitated specialization and fostered professional synergy among practitioners.

Governments Involvement in the Institutionalization of Traditional Medicine

Before the 1960, most of Nigerians relied more on indigenous medicine, otherwise known as, traditional medicine, as a major source of healthcare provision. The traditional medicine continued to operate outside the formal government structure and funding. After independence, the country recognized the importance of promoting indigenous skills and knowledge, hence recognized its role as alternative sources of healthcare provision to the public. Consequently, government gradually introduced policies that promoted and supported indigenous medicine and skills. Efforts mostly centred on two main areas of conserving medicinal plants and fostering synergy with ethnomedical practitioners to promote traditional medical knowledge and usage. These initiatives laid the foundation for promoting traditional medicine and surged awareness among the practitioners. The growing awareness that enhanced advancement cannot be attributed to a single entity. The initiative brought closer the possibility of integrating traditional medicine into the mainstream of the healthcare provision. Integration of traditional medicine practice involves combining it with orthodox to work together in order to improve the healthcare delivery. It encompasses the deployment of both traditional medicine and orthodox practices in the official healthcare delivery system of the country.^[10]  In 1966, for instance, the military government directed the University of Ibadan to conduct research on the medicinal properties of local herbs with a view to standardize and regulate it. The Federal Government directed the screening of indigenous herbs encouraged the local practitioners to push for more recognition.

As Nigeria prepared for the Second Republic civil rule, the military government relaxed restrictions on social and political activities, allowing an increase in socio-political engagement. The formation of Hausa medicine practitioners’ association was a result of this socio-political changes. This changes in policy can be attributed to the military government’s transition the country into the Third Republic. While this was taking place, there was a global move to adapt universal policy on primary healthcare provision. The 1978 Alma-Ata Declaration on Primary Healthcare was a landmark global health policy adopted at the International Conference co-sponsored by the World Health Organization (WHO) and UNICEF. It declared that member -states should provide accessible community-based primary healthcare through integration of traditional medical practices into national health systems.^[11] This prompted, Hausa traditional medicine practitioners in Kano organized themselves into formal associations in response to the growing international and national interest in indigenous healthcare system. It resulted in the formation of Hausa Traditional Medicine Practitioners Association (HTMPA) in 1978. The association became a central medium through which the government engaged with traditional practitioners. The legal recognition of HTMPA marked a significant transformation in how traditional practitioners were perceived within the legal and public health framework. The relative freedom achieved from customary constraints allowed them to enjoy greater autonomy and association. For instance, they could independently select their leadership, an important step that encouraged more practitioners to join the government-affiliated association. Prominent among the founding members and leaders of HTMPA were Alhaji Garban Geza, Alhaji Garba Maisikeli, Alhaji Muhammad Bello Idris, and Mallam Sule Haruna.^[12] In an attempt to consolidate these developments, the Federal Ministry of Health seek additional steps toward formal institutionalization of traditional medicine practice. In 1981, the National Council on Health (NCH) approved the establishment of the National Traditional Healers Board (NTHB), intended to oversee the accreditation of native herbalists and traditional practitioners across the country. Similarly, in 1984, the Federal Ministry of Health also constituted the National Investigation Committee on Traditional and Alternative Medicine. In its report, the committee recommended the creation of Traditional Medicine Board (TMB) in each state of the federation. Despite the approval and recommendation by the NCH and the National Investigation Committee on Traditional and Alternative Medicine, neither the NTHB nor the TMB was established as a national regulatory body. ^[13] However, Kano State, while partaking in these policies moved further toward a formal partnership with indigenous practitioners like HTMPA. Ironically, these efforts largely excluded rural practitioners, the core custodians of traditional medicine practices. As a result, the institutionalization efforts during the early 1980s had limited impact in rural areas, stressing the concerns regarding the rural–urban divide among the practitioners in Kano.^[14]

In 1989, the Federal government made another effort by appointing the late Professor Sule Bello as the Executive Secretary of the National Council of Arts and Culture (NCAC), with the mandate to implement the Council’s policies including zonal offices. Bello established Durba Gallery in Kano and Kaduna, masquerade galleries in Abia and Anambra, traditional textiles industry show (Adire), Boat Regatta and the Botanical Garden Getso in Kano (BGG), with a view to conserve traditional medicinal plants and indigenous medicine practice.^[15] Bello founded BGG in Gwarzo Local Government of Kano State in 1996. The project was inspired by the Royal Botanic Garden, Kew in the United Kingdom. Kew is the world's largest conservation garden.^[16] Plants with medicinal values were sourced from Sarauniya Forest Reserve, Kusalla in Karaye Local Government Area, Baichin Fulani in Dawakin Kudu and Bagwai local government areas of Kano State. A total of two hundred and sixty (260) plants, both indigenous and non-indigenous were planted in the garden. ^[17] It was a significant milestone for the recognition of the importance of Hausa traditional medicine and its conservation. Bello’s initiative of a Botanical Garden in Kano was furthered by Dr. Emma Nnakenyi Arinze, his successor.^[18] 

The Federal government’s initiative to promote traditional medicine culminated in the 1997 maiden exhibition, featuring traditional and herbal medicine practitioners in Kaduna. The event was considered a huge success and attracted practitioners nationwide. Following the success of Kaduna exhibition, in 1998, the NCAC and National Craft Center relocated the event to Kano, thus encouraging the turnout of practitioners. The exhibition which started as a trial, grew into an annual affair that brought together practitioners from various backgrounds to share knowledge, innovation, and network. It also attracted a broad spectrum of attendees, comprising of practitioners, researchers, scholars, and individuals interested in exploring alternative medicine.^[19] Table I shows the names of companies that participated in Kaduna fair and remained participants even after the event relocation to Kano.

TABLE I: Showing some of the herbal medicine companies participated in Kano trade fair from 1998

S/N	Company Name	State of origin	Specialization	Year of establishment
1	De Katoka W/A Ltd.	Lagos-Badagry	Herbal Medicine	1975
2	Yem-Kem Int. Nig. Ltd.	Lagos-Idumu	Herbal Medicine	1985
3	Amelex Co. Nig. Ltd.	Lagos-Ikoyi	Herbal Medicine	1988
4	OM-Wonder Link Nig. Ltd.	Lagos -Ikeja	Herbal Medicine	1989
5	U. J. Abraham Nig. Enterprises	Port Harcourt	Herbal Medicine	1992
6.	F.A. Ike & Sons Ltd.	Anambra-Onitsha	Herbal Medicine	1995
7.	Kolaq Herbs Ltd.	Lagos -Ikeja	Herbal Medicine	1996
8	Health Forever Product Ltd	Lagos – Ikeja	Herbal Medicine	1997
9	Mister Guarantee Ltd.	Lagos -Surulere	Herbal Medicine	2001
10	Teez-Freez Nig. Ltd.	Lagos- Yaba	Herbal Medicine	2003
11	African Herbal Med. Nig. Ltd	Kano- Bompai	Herbal Medicine	2002

Source: Compiled from interviews conducted between 2021 and 2023

From the table above, all these companies were owned by non-Hausa practitioners with south-west dominating the scene, followed by north-central while only a single participant from the south-south. It is important to note that, their presence in the exhibition inspired some individual Kano practitioners to make changes in their operational style. This need for changes were pushed further by the State governments agencies in the early 2000, when Islamic Sharia compliance state agencies, such as Kano State Hisbah Board and Kano State Censorship Board banned mobile traditional medicine vendors and practitioners from using vulgar language and advertisement that displays immoral images. Use of inappropriate/vulgar language that contradicted the cultural and religious norms of the people, while peddling Hausa medicine was banned.^[20]

At the national level, the Minister of Health, Professor Eyitayo Lambo initiated a national effort to unify traditional medicine practitioners’ associations under one umbrella. Prior to 2003 when he was appointed as Minister of Health, there were over 13 national associations of traditional and herbal medicines, each claiming to be the legitimate body that represented the practitioners. As a former employee of WHO and expert in health economic reforms in Africa, Professor Eyitayo acknowledged the critical role that traditional medicine could play in enhancing healthcare delivery in the country.^[21] It was under his leadership that the various associations were summoned and encouraged to form one unified association. On December 19, 2006, the leadership of various traditional medicine associations converged in Abuja and founded the National Association of Nigeria Traditional Medicine Practitioners (NANTMP), with an inaugural membership of 146 practitioners.^[22]

Following the successful formation of nationally recognized association, various government institutions were mandated to collaborate with NANTMP in matters relating to traditional medicine practice and policy development. Thus, the National Agency for Food and Drugs Administration Control (NAFDAC) was mandated to accept product registration application from traditional medicine practitioners who were certified members of the NANTMP. The establishment of the association and policies were crucial development that drive the institutionalization agenda and quality control measures for effective traditional medicine service delivery across the country. The practitioners who attended the convention played a pivotal role in establishing its chapter in Kano. The prominent practitioners including Alhaji Muhammad Turado Dantata, Yan Musa Ganye, Muhammad Khamis Kibiya, Baban Uwa Mai Magani and Al-Hassan Bichi who later served as members of the Board of Trustee at national and state levels. They provided successful mentoring and oversaw the establishment of the chapter’s interim leadership under Mal. Salihu Nura Adam as Chairman and Rabilu Muhammad Sarkin Maganin Jihar Kano (chief of Traditional Medicine of Kano State) as secretary of the chapter. This paved way for the creation of political office of Senior Special Advisor (SSA) on Herbal Medicine by the Kano state government in 2007. In 2008, Muhammad Khamis Kibiya became the chairman while Rabilu Muhammad continued as his assistant. The formation of a single association brought cohesion and unity to previously fragmented multiple groups.^[23] 

The 2011 reelection of Rabiu Musa Kwankwaso marked a pivotal moment in the institutionalization of Hausa traditional medicine in Kano, revitalizing state effort for regulating the practice. In April 2012, he appointed Professor Salisu Ahmed Ibrahim, a Physiologist, as Special Assistant on Private Health Institutions. Salisu Ibrahim drove two major initiatives that advanced the institutionalization of Hausa medicine. Professor Ibrahim acted on the general concern regarding the indiscriminate consumption of herbs, especially in rural areas. The focus shifted to evaluating the effectiveness and potential risks associated with consuming these herbs.^[24]

To address this challenge, the Kano State government launched a project in 2013 to determine the Medium Lethal Dose (LD50) of local herbs, aiming to assess their safety and efficacy. The project aimed to determine the quantity of toxic substance contained in herbs presented by practitioners.^[25] A team of thirty-four experts from academics, health workers and practitioners were assembled to carry out the exercise.  As part of their Terms of Reference (ToR), the state government instructed them to conduct the screening of herbs presented by the practitioners through NANTMP.  More than two hundred herbal medicines were presented to the committee for screening with only seventy successfully passing the toxic laboratory test conducted at the Bayero University, Kano.^[26]

The development was as a positive step towards reducing the risk of toxic consumption and also promoting the safety of Hausa traditional medicine. Through the process, government certified the screened herbal medicines. Following the LD50 project’s achievements, the Governor instructed Salisu Ibrahim, his Special Assistant on Private Health institutions to design a plan for the launching government-owned Institute of Traditional Medicine.^[27] The Governor inaugurated a committee in June 2013, bringing together experts from academia, healthcare, and traditional medicine to design a curriculum for basic and advanced Hausa traditional medicine practice. The initiative was a major milestone in the institutionalization of Hausa traditional medicine, as it was the state’s first official attempt to establish standardized educational content. NANTMP leveraged this initiative to strengthen their involvement and its capacity by setting up private training school that offered structured programmes for prospective practitioners. Dala LEA Primary School served as the venue for the programme where basic knowledge in toxic substances, hygiene in medicine practice, herbs packaging, and bottling to be taught.

By 2015, the initiative to set up Institute of Traditional Medicine was put on hold when Abdullahi Umar Ganduje came to power. The planned temporary location at the School of Health Technology was never utilized. Although the proposed government-owned institute was abandoned and the nascent private training initiative by NANTMP at Dala LEA was discontinued, these efforts prompted the establishment of privately-owned training schools, largely by renowned practitioners. The development significantly contributed in advancing standardization in the practice of Hausa medicine in Kano.^[28]

Table II showing some private institutes of traditional medicine practice in Kano and their proprietors

S/N	Name of the Institute	Addresses	Proprietors
1.	Salihannur Institute of Traditional and Herbal Medicine	Sabon Titi- Gwale Local Government	Sheikh Salihu Nura Adam
2.	Gaskiyar Lamari– Sangarib Tradomedical Center.	Gyadi-gyadi-Zaria road- Kumbotso Local Government	Muhammad Khamis Kibiya
3.	School of Natural Medicine Chediyar Kuda	Kwanar Goda, Municipal Local Government Kano State	Mal. Abdulkarim Hassan Sani Adamu
4.	Rahma M. Traditional Medicine and Islamiyya School	Kurnar Asabe, Layin Yaran Malam, Katsina Road.	Not Available
5.	MIJ College of Traditional Medicine and Acupuncture Ltd	Maitangaran House, opp. Dangi Pharmacy	Ibrahim Muhammad Jawa
6	Society for Herbal Empowerment and Modern Development (SHE&MD)	Ungogo Local Government- Ungogo	Mal. Auwalu Shehu Adakawa
7	Kachako Islamic Medicine Centre (KIMEC)	Hotoron Fulani, ramin Kwalabe	Yakubu Maigida Kachako

Source: Compiled from field research and interviews between 2021-2023

The table II highlighted the leading private training centers of Hausa traditional medicine in Kano. These centers were all located within metropolitan Kano and were owned by Hausa practitioners. A typical example illustrating the impact of these private schools on their graduates is Mal. Abdulkadir Hassan Sani Adamu. He acquired his knowledge of Hausa herbal medicine under the tutelage of Salihannur and Gaskiyar Lamari. Mal. Abdulkadir later established the School of Natural Medicine Chediyar Kuda, which further exemplifies the role of such institutions in sustaining and advancing Hausa traditional medical practice. Their operational models mirrored the approaches employed by non-Hausa indigenous companies listed in Table I, reflecting both cross-cultural adaptation of institutional practices and adaptation of orthodox model within traditional medicine. The development was largely as a result of the strategic implementation of government policies that fostered collaboration among practitioners, whether through organized exhibitions or the formation of professional association encouraged by the authorities.^[29]

Despite the controversy surrounding his role in traditional medicine institutionalization, Governor Ganduje’s administration signed into law, the Kano State Private Health Institution Management Agency bill. This led to the establishment of Private Health Institution Management Agency (PHIMA) under K.S. Law No. 7 of 2017. Under the Agency’s mandate Hausa traditional medicine practice was given recognition. The law brought traditional medicine practitioners, vendors of traditional medicine, maternity homes, private clinics, pharmaceutical chemists, patient medicines and other healthcare service providers together in Kano under its authority. It is mandated to regulate the operations of private healthcare service providers including Hausa medicine practitioners, especially in the areas of hygiene, safety, and efficacy. This was done with a view to improving access to public healthcare provision and sanity among the practitioners and other private healthcare providers.^[30]

Conclusion

The institutionalization of Hausa traditional medicine in Kano has made significant influence on the practitioners. In the pre-colonial period, traditional medicine was the source of primary healthcare across all cultures. In Hausa traditional medicine, the hierarchy in the system underscored the social order and headship as a confirmation of its institutionalization. The system was neither promoted nor encouraged during the colonial period. Colonial government rather, emphasized the promotion of orthodox medicine and its modus-operandi was adapted. This process disregarded the indigenous medical practices. In the post-independent period, efforts by the government started from 1966 when the Federal Government directed the University of Ibadan to carry out a project find out the locally produce herbs that has medicinal value in the country. Foreseeing possible government engagement, the traditional medicine practitioners in Kano took formed an association to safeguard their interests and be involved in the future government programmes. The awareness, however, did not translate into tangible action until much later in 1978, when a practitioners association was formally established in Kano. In 1980, the Federal Government initiated a national headcount of practitioners in Nigeria. A significant milestone in the promotion of traditional medicine in Kano were the establishment of the Botanical Garden Getso (BGG) in 1989 and the inauguration of Traditional Medicine Trade Fair in 1998. The trade fair initiative brought together ethnomedicine practitioners from across the country. It also provided an environment for the exchange of ideas. The period from 2013 to 2017 saw the increase government involvement in regulating the practice Hausa traditional medicine. These included the screening of 100 herbs with medicinal value, census of the practitioners, and an attempt to establish Institute of Traditional Medicine in Kano. All these are translated into government programmes aimed at advancing and institutionalizing the Hausa traditional medicine in Kano.

References and further reading list

Oral Sources

SN	Name	Age	Place of interview	Date of Interview	Professions
1.	Muhammad Khamis Kibiya	68	Sangarib Herbal Center Gyadi-gyadi,- Zaria road Kano City	10th March, 2022	Hausa Traditional medicine practitioners
2.	Ibrahim Arab Dan Sokoto	48	Gidan Zaituna -Gwagwarwa.	29th February, 2022	Herbal medicine practitioner
3.	Auwalu Shehu Adakawa	55	Ungogo Local Government	19th February, 2022	A seasoned researcher and practitioner
4.	Malam Faruk Umar	58	Hajj Pilgrims Camp. Kano State.	31st May 2023	A civil servant at National Council of Arts and Culture (NCAC)
5.	Aminu Muhammad Getso	72	Dorayi Quarters, Gwale Local Government.	18th August 2022	Practitioner/ retired civil servant - National Council of Arts and Culture (NCAC).
6.	Adam Salisu Hassan	59	Kofar Waika, Dala Local Government.	07th October 2023	Practitioner/ Public Relation Officer- NANTMP-Kano Chapter since 2019.
7.	Mal. Nura Salihu Adam	62	Sabon-titi Dan dago, Gwale Local Government.	23rd August 2024	Traditional Medicine Practitioner
8	Professor Salisu Ahmed Ibrahim	59	Racecourse. Private Health Institution Management Agency (PHIMA), Kano.	28th February 2024	Prof. of Physiology, Bayero University Kano.
9	SM. Umar Muhammad Nagge		Ja’oji quarters	07th October 2023	Practitioner of herbal medicine

 

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Federal Ministry of Health (FMOH). (2007). National Traditional Medicine Policy. Abuja: FMOH.

 

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Ph.D. Theses

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Alhamdu, H. A. (2008). “Evaluation of the Contributions of the National Council of Arts and Culture to the National Development.” Unpublished Ph. d Dissertation, Department of Art Education, ABU, Zaria.

Labbo A. (2018), “A History of Modern Medical and Healthcare Services in Colonial and Post-colonial Sokoto Province, 1920-1986”. Unpublished Ph. D thesis, Usmanu Danfodiyo, Sokoto.

Oluyitan, J. A, (2014). “History of Colonial Medical and Health Services in Ibadan 1900-1960”. An Unpublished Ph.D Thesis, Department of History, University of Ibadan-Nigeria.  

Wada, M., (2012), “Kano Native Authority and The Provision of Modern Health Care Services 1903- 1967”, An Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis, Department of History, Bayero University Kano.

 

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[1] R. GhorbaniNia, Mehrolhassani, M. H., Leila Vali, & Yuosef Shaabani, “The Use of Traditional Medicine in the Implementation of Quaternary Prevention From the Perspective of Experts in Traditional Medicine”, P-3

[2] WHO. Legal Status of Traditional Medicine and Complementary/Alternative Medicine: Worldwide Review. Geneva 2001

[3] E. A. Okojie, “Impacts of Regulatory Mechanisms on Trado-Medical Practice in Nigeria”, Journal of Law, Policy and Globalization. P. 117

[4] Okeke, T.A., Uzochukwu, B.S.C., & Okafor, H.U., “An In-Depth Study of Patent Medicine Sellers’ Perspectives on Malaria in a Rural Nigerian Community,” Malaria Journal 5, no. 97 (2006).

[5] Sofowora, A., Ogunbodede, E., & Onayade, A., “The Role and Place of Medicinal Plants in the Strategies for Disease Prevention,” African Journal of Traditional, Complementary and Alternative Medicines 1, no. 1 (2004):1–9.

[6] Ihonvbere, J. O. (1993). Structural Adjustment Programme (SAP) and the future of health in Africa. International Journal of Health Services, 23(1), 25–36.

[7] Akin, J., Birdsall, N., & Ferranti, D. (1987). Financing Health Services in Developing Countries: An Agenda for Reform. Washington, D.C.: World Bank.

[8] https://www.nigeriainfo.fm/news/homepagelagos/nigerians-switch-from-orthodox-to-traditional-medicines-amid-economic-hardship/

[9] Interview, Muhammad Khamis Kibiya (Herbalist), Sangarib Herbal Center Gyadi-gyadi,- Zaria road Kano City, on 10th March 2022

[10] E. A. Okojie’s article titled, “Impacts of Regulatory Mechanisms on Trado-Medical Practice in Nigeria”, Journal of Law, Policy and Globalization. P. 125

[11] J. Ibrahim & H. Egharevba “Integrating Traditional Medicine Practice into the Formal Health Care Delivery System in the New Millennium-The Nigerian Approach: A Review”. International Journal of Life Sciences. P. 121

[12] Interview, Sheikh Salihu Nura Adam (traditional medicine practitioner), Sabon Titi Gwale Local Government, 23 August, 2024.

[13] A.A. Abdullahi, , “The Trends and Challenges of Traditional Medicine in Africa”, in Journal of Afr J. Tradit Complement Alternative Med. 2011. 8.(S):

[14] Interview, SM. Umar Muhammad Nagge (practitioner),  Ja’oji quarters ,07^th October 2023.

[15] Kano office comprises of Jigawa and Katsina states. The major areas of interest in the mandate of the Kano Zonal office include crafts, traditional sports, the management of Botanical Garden Getso, craft development center and traditional medicine. For more on Prof. Sule Bello-see a published tribute titled Abdullah, Y. “Prof Sule Bello: Tribute (1953-2021), in One Year Memorial Lecture and Tribute. Prof Sule Bello Legacy Project, ‘Professor Sule Bello 1953-2021”, Versatile Educational Consultancy Services Ltd. 2022.

[16] Interview, Mal. Umar Faruk (civil servant), NCAC Zonal Office, opp Pilgrims Camp. Kano state, 31^st May 2023.

[17] nterview, Mal. Umar Faruk (civil servant).

[18] Interview, Mal. Auwalu Tukur (civil servant), Botanical Garden Getso, Gwarzo Local Government, 1^st June 2023

[19] Interview, Mal. Auwalu Tukur (civil servant)..

[20] Interview, Muhammad Khamis Kibiya (Herbalist), Sangarib Herbal Center Gyadi-gyadi,- Zaria road Kano City, on 10th March 2022

[21] Professor Epitayo Lambo grew up in Kogi State in the Northcentral Nigeria. Being an academics who specializes in economics and applied health systems developed interest in the integration and professionalization of traditional medicine in Nigeria. Epitayo held a position of regional Adviser for health sector reforms, health care financing and health in socioeconomic development in the World Health Organization's regional office for Africa from 1990 to 1999.

[22] J. Ibrahim & H. Egharevba “Integrating Traditional Medicine Practice into the Formal Health Care Delivery System in the New Millennium-The Nigerian Approach: A Review”. International Journal of Life Sciences. P. 122

[23] Interview, Sheikh Salihu Nura Adam (traditional medicine practitioner).

[24] Interview, Auwalu Shehu Adakawa, (traditional medicine practitioner) Ungogo Local Government Area, Kano State, 19^th February 2022.

[25] The LD50 (Median Lethal Dose) test was introduced by J. W. Trevan in 1927. It is a laboratory test that estimates toxic substance dose on animal species with high tendency of 50% or above. It aims at reducing the risk of herb consumption with high level of toxic metabolites. Please see CCOHS, Chemicals and Materials, www.ccohs/oshanswers/chemicals.. And Monograph No. 6, Acute Toxicity Tests Determinations and Alternatives, May 1985. 

[26]Interview, Prof. Salisu Ahmed Ibrahim (former Special Assistant on Private Health Institutions), Racecourse road, Nassarawa Local Government Kano, 28^th Feb. 2024. Notable among them listed by Prof. Ibrahim were Dr. Salisu Ibrahim Ahmad (his humble self), and Professor Abdullahi Hamza Yaro (both from the Department of Pharmacology), Professor Aliyu Muhammad (Department of Pharmacology), all from Bayero University Kano. Others were the representatives of the practitioners, such as Mal. Salihu Nura Adam, Mal. Auwalu Shehu Adakawa and Mal. Muhammad Khamis Kibiya.

[27] Interview, Auwalu Shehu Adakawa, (traditional medicine practitioner) Ungogo Local Government Area, Kano State, 19^th February 2022.

[28] Interview, Auwalu Shehu Adakawa, (traditional medicine practitioner)Ungogo Local Government Area, Kano State, 19^th February 2022.

[29] Interview, Ibrahim Arab Dan Sokoto, (traditional medicine practitioner), Gidan Zaituna -Gwagwarwa -Nassarawa Local Government, Kano, 29^th February 2022.

[30] Kano State of Nigeria Gazette: Kano State Private Health Institutions Management Agency Law 2017 (1438 A.H.). No. 8 Kano- 16^th November, 2017. Vol. 49.