A Cognitive Analysis of Metaphorical Expressions in Yi Akwei Armah’s The Beautyful Ones Are Not Yet Born

Cite this article as: Gwarzo, Y. A.& Salisu, R.G. (2025). A cognitive analysis of metaphorical expressions in Yi Akwei Armah’s the Beautyful Ones Are Not Yet Born. Sokoto Journal of Linguistics and Communication Studies (SOJOLICS), 1(2), 175–184. https://doi.org/10.36349/sojolics.2025.v01i02.020

A COGNITIVE ANALYSIS OF METAPHORICAL EXPRESSIONS IN YI AKWEI ARMAH’S THE BEAUTYFUL ONES ARE NOT YET BORN

By:

Yusuf Ahmed Gwarzo, Ph.D.

Department of Nigerian Languages, Northwest University, Kano

Email: aygwarzo@yumsuk.edu.ng

&

Rabiu Garba Salisu

rabiugarbasalisu@gmail.com

Postgraduate Student, Department of English and Literary Studies

Northwest University, Kano

Abstract

The aim of the study is to explore the metaphorical expressions in Ayi Kwei Armah's The Beautyful Ones Are Not Yet Born using the conceptual theory of metaphor (CMT) by Lakoff& Johnson (1980) and Idealized cognitive models (ICMs) by Radden & Kovecses (1999) as its framework. The research objectives include identifying metaphorical expressions, exploring cognitive mechanisms and highlighting the function of idealized cognitive models (ICMs) in the text. A qualitative approach was employed, involving a descriptive analysis of linguistic expressions in the text. The data collection process involved reading the text multiple times, highlighting linguistic expressions and categorizing them according to structural metaphors using CMT. The study identifies 42 metaphorical expressions grouped under 14 conceptual metaphors The study found 14 conceptual metaphors. The findings also revealed the extensive use of structural metaphors in the text, supporting the universality of conceptual metaphors (Lakoff& Johnson, 1980; Kovecses, 2010). Additionally, 6 idealized cognitive models (ICMs) were identified as playing a role in the creation of these conceptual metaphors. This research contributes to the understanding of cognitive metaphorical expressions in literary texts, highlighting the significance of CMT in analyzing conceptual metaphors and ICMs. The findings also support the claim of the universality of metaphors, demonstrating how metaphorical expressions are extensively exploited in literary text.

1. Introduction

Metaphor is for most people a device of the poetic imagination, metaphor is typically viewed as characteristic of language alone, a matter of words rather than thought or action. For this reason, most people think they can get along perfectly well without metaphor. We have found on the contrary, that metaphor is pervasive in everyday life, not just in language but in thought and action. Our ordinary conceptual system; in terms of which we both think and act, is fundamentally metaphorical in nature (Lakoff and Johnson 1980).Kovecses (2010) arguesthat for most of us, metaphor is a figure of speech in which one thing is compared with another by saying that one is the other, as in,He is a lion or, as the Encyclopedia Britannica put it: “metaphor(is a) figure of speech that implies comparison between two unlike entities, as distinguished from simile”.According to Kovecses (2014) there are five traditional concepts of metaphor: First, metaphor is a property of words. Second, metaphor is used for some artistic purpose. Third, metaphor is based on a resemblance between the two entities. Fourth, metaphor is a conscious and deliberate use of words, and you must have a special talent to be able to do it and do it well. Fifth, it is also commonly held that metaphor is a figure of speech that we can do without, we use it for special effects, and it is not part of everyday human communication.He added that, a new perspective view of metaphors that challenged all these aspects of traditional theory in a systematic way was first developed by George Lakoff and Mark Johnson in 1980 in their book “Metaphors We Live By”. Their conception has become known as the “Cognitive Linguistic View of Metaphor”. Lakoff and Johnson challenged the deeply view of metaphor by claiming that.(i)metaphor is a property of concepts and not of words. (ii)the function of metaphor is to better understand certain concepts, and not just some artistic purpose. (iii)metaphor is often not based on similarity. (iv)metaphor is used effortlessly in everyday life by ordinary people.(v)metaphor is not only pleasing linguistic ornament; it is an inevitable process of human thought and reasoning.

Researchers highlight the significance of body parts in grounding human thought and experience (Deignan& Potter, 2004). This has sparked investigations into how human thought conceptualizes body parts to generate metaphoric expressions. Numerous studies have explored metaphor, demonstrating its importance in understanding human cognition and language. With reference to the above information, this study aims to reveal the underlying conceptual metaphors in Beautyful Ones Are Not Yet Born and offer insights into cognitive mechanisms and other cultural beliefs. The book was authored by A.K. Armah (born October 28, 1939, in Ghana) a renowned novelist and Pan-Africanist whose works explore postcolonial disillusionment, identity, and corruption, making him one of Africa’s most influential literary voices. The book portrays moral decay through the story of a principled railway clerk who resists corruption despite poverty and social pressure, symbolizing the struggle to uphold integrity in a morally compromised society.

2. Literature Review

Cirovic (2022) examined Shakespeare’s Othello using Conceptual Metaphor Theory (CMT) to show how animal-based metaphors reveal cognitive links between race, gender, and evil. The study demonstrated that metaphorical language exposes underlying perceptions of the “Other.” Similarly, Sobola and Agboola (2016) found that conceptual metaphors possess syntactic structures similar to canonical sentences, but their interpretation depends on conceptual not structural factors. In the Hausa context, Gwarzo (2015) analyzed metaphorical and metonymical uses of hannu‘hand’ and kai ‘head’, revealing that these body part terms conceptualize mental operations, control, and cultural beliefs. Likewise, Almajir (2010) applied a cognitive-semantic approach to Hausa metaphors, showing that metaphor is a key cognitive tool linking thought and linguistic expression. Nokele (2015) explored CMT in translating metaphors from Mandela’s Long Walk to Freedom into isiXhosa and isiZulu, finding conceptual consistency across languages. Agnes (2009) investigated metaphors in media advertisements, illustrating how figurative language influences perception and consumer behavior. Charbati (2008) stressed that metaphors are pervasive in human thought and behavior, not merely linguistic devices, while Ungerer and Schmid (2006) traced the evolution of metaphor theory from a stylistic to a cognitive orientation, following Lakoff and Johnson’s (1980) seminal contribution. Collectively, these studies demonstrate the centrality of CMT in analyzing how metaphors shape cognition, language, and cultural understanding a framework equally relevant to exploring metaphorical expressions in African literary and linguistic contexts.

3. Theoretical Framework

This study adopted the Conceptual Metaphor Theory (CMT) proposed by Lakoff& Johnson (1980)   and Idealized Cognitive Models (ICMs) by Radden&Kövecses, (1999). These theories cover the areas identified for the purpose of this research. The theoretical foundation was established by Lakoff and Johnson (1980) in Metaphors We Live By and later expanded by Kovecses (2002, 2010). These scholars classify metaphors into three main types: structural, orientational, and ontological. Structural metaphors allow complex abstract ideas to be understood through more concrete frameworks, enabling systematic correspondences between conceptual elements. Orientational metaphors organize abstract experiences through spatial orientation derived from bodily experience, such as happy is up and sad is down(Lakoff& Johnson, 2003). Ontological metaphors, meanwhile, conceptualize abstract phenomena such as emotions, ideas, or events as physical entities or substances, allowing speakers to reason about them as tangible experiences.

A central component of this framework is metaphorical mapping, the cognitive process by which elements from a concrete source domain are projected onto an abstract target domain (Lakoff& Johnson, 1980). Radden and Dirven (2007) note that such mappings are often partial only selected aspects of the source are mapped onto the target revealing the selective nature of conceptual understanding. Conceptual domains themselves are mental networks that organize human experience, with the source domain typically representing familiar, physical knowledge and the target domain representing abstract concepts.

4. Methodology

According to Creswell (2014), methodology reflects the researcher’s philosophical orientation, research design, and the specific procedures employed to ensure a systematic and coherent approach to a study. This research adopts a qualitative approach, deemed appropriate for analyzing the linguistic expressions extracted from the selected literary text. The qualitative design was chosen because the study investigates naturally occurring linguistic and cognitive phenomena as reflected in the data. The data collection involved multiple careful readings of The Beautyful Ones Are Not Yet Born to identify metaphorical linguistic expressions relevant to the study. The text was read at least five times to ensure accuracy and depth of understanding. Metaphorical expressions were then highlighted, recorded, and categorized based on Conceptual Metaphor Theory (CMT), specifically focusing on structural metaphors. The data were subsequently organized and analyzed according to the types of conceptual metaphors identified, along with their corresponding linguistic expressions.

5. Data Presentation and Analysis

The total data collected for analysis in this study comprise forty-two (42) linguistic expressions, which encompass fourteen (14) conceptual metaphors identified from the text. A detailed breakdown of the data is presented in the table below.

S/N	Beautyful Ones Are Not Yet Born	TOKEN
1	Movement is uncertainty	3
2	Progress is movement	3
3	Machines are living things	3
4	Height is power	3
5	Throat is a Container	3
6	Movement is Progress	3
7	Time is Container	3
8	People are Machines	3
9	People are Corpses	3
10	People are Small Being	3
11	Emotions are Forces	3
12	Argument is War	3
13	Money is a Resource	3
14	Touch is Connection	3
Total		42

    Table 1:  frequency of the compiled data

1. Movement is Uncertainty

The above conceptual metaphor constitutes the source domain and the target domain concepts. uncertainty, which is the target, is understood in terms of the source movement. Movement is the act or process of changing position, place or direction.At the conceptual level, between the source and target we have the following metaphorical expressions that really emphasize the saying that movement is uncertainty. As in the following examples:

1. "The bus moved uncertainly down the road" (Pg. 1, L 1)

2. "The driver sped along the road like an afternoon breeze" (Pg. 140 L 21)

 3. "Shift in the ghost" (Pg. 96 L30)

In Example (1), the word moved is understood as uncertainty, while for (2) sped is extended to be unpredictable and in (3) a shift is conceptualized as uncertain and transformation. The set of correspondence between the elements of the source movement and those of the target domain uncertaintyas in:

Source Domain: (Movement)    Target Domain: (Uncertainty)

Movement     Uncertainty

Direction     Clarity

Speed      Confidence

Obstacles     Challenges

Destination     Goal

2. Progress is Movement

Considering movement as the source domain and progress as the target domain the target is comprehended in terms of the source domain movement. The metaphorical expressions in this include:

4. "The bus had come to a stop" (Pg. 1, L 3-4)

5. "Passenger shuffled up the center aisle" (Pg. 1, L 19-20)

6. "Shoot like a star toward the gleam" (Pg. 96 L27-28).

For Example (4), stop is seen as a setback or an obstacle to progress, while for (5) shuffled is understood as a challenge in making progress and in (6) shoot implies rapid or progressive movement. The noticeable features that can be conceptualized from the source movement and the target progress are as follows:

Source Domain: (Movement)    Target Domain: (Progress)

Movement       Progress

Static       Lack of progress

Direction       Purpose

Speed       Rate of progress

Obstacles     Challenges to progress

3. Machines are living things

The above conceptual metaphor contains the source and the target concept. machines, is the target understood in terms of the source living things. Living things are entities that exhibit the characteristics of life. At the conceptual level, between the source and the target domain we have the following linguistic expressions that really emphasize the saying that machines are living things. The expression includes:

7."Spasticshudder" (Pg. 1, L 5).

8."Touchingrusty metal" (Pg. 5, L 32)

9."Dragging them after us" (Pg. 96 L16)

In Example (7) above, spastic is understood as a malfunction or erratic behavior, while in (8) rusty is conceptualized as sign of deterioration, which decreases mobility and for (9) Dragging is conceptualized as inefficiency that reduces performance. A set of correspondences between the constituent elements of the source living things and those of target domain machines is as follows:

Source Domain: (Living Things)    Target Domain: (Machines)

Life      Functionality

Death       Malfunction

Movement     Operation

Sensation     Response

Energy     Power

Repair      Healing

4. Height is Power

The two conceptual domains in the above are height and power. The target domain height is understood in terms of the source domain, power. The metaphorical linguistic expressions used to talk height are as follows:

10. "Eyes had in them the restless happiness of power" (Pg. 2, L 30)

11. "Dwarfs unable to run away" (Pg. 2, L 14-15)

12. "Lean figures emerged as if to threaten him, but when he came up to them they saluted stiffly" (Pg. 103 L14-15)

In (10) above, restless is understood as elevated power, which is associated with power, in (11) dwarfsis conceptualized as lack of power and for (12) the emerged is sense as rising or elevation. We can lay out a set of metaphorical links between the source domain and the target domain, as in:

Source Domain: (Power)   Target Domain :( Height)

Height      Dominance

Lowliness     Subordination

Verticality     Hierarchy

Elevation    Authority

Distance     Social status

5. Throat is a Container

In the conceptual metaphor Throat is a Container, THROAT as the target domain is understood in terms of the source domain Container. Container is seen as a physical entity that holds, encloses or surrounds something else, such as objects, substances or ideas. There are some linguistic expressions that talk of that shown:

 13. “Cleared his throat and spat out a generous gob of mucus” (Pg. 1 L 14)

14. "Fullness of the month touches each old sufferer" (Pg. 2, L 12-13)

15."The man saw his mother-in-law's face contract, oozing shame and hate mixed together" (Pg. 134 L 3-5).

In Example (13) it depicted that clear is metaphorically understood as emptying and free from obstruction and blockage or congestion, while in (14) Fullness is conceptualized as difficult in breathe, speak or swallow and in (15) Oozing is understood as the slow or gradual flow. In the same case here, we can have these correspondences looking at the constituent elements in source domain and target domain:

Source Domain: (Container)   Target Domain: (Throat)

Container      Throat

Emptying      Clearing throat

Filling       Blocking throat

Overflowing      Vomiting

Contents      Emotions

6. Movement is Progress

The conceptual metaphor contains the two conceptual domains (i.e. movement as a source and progress as the target domain) that to be conceptualized. movement is seen as change in the position or location of an object or a person. This includes walking, running, jumping or any action that involves movement from one place to another. There are some linguistic expressions that when heard in the right perspective, our thinking will directly go to the target domain progress as in:  

16. "Driver climbed down onto the road" (Pg. 1, L 7)

17. "The easy slide" (Pg. 31 L35)

18. "Walking with an unknown companion" (Page 100 L 3-4)

In Example (16) above, climbed is conceptualized as making steady progress toward a goal; in (17), slide implies falling behind, missing opportunities and for (18) walking is understood as progression, staying on track. What makes us perceive structural similarities between the concept of movement as source and that of progress are mapping the constituent elements of both domains as follows:

Source Domain: (Movement)  Target Domain: (Progress)

Movement       Progress

Static       Lack of progress

Direction      Purpose

Speed      Rate of progress

Distance     Achievement

 

7. Time is Container

container is considered as the source domain and time as the target domain. The target is comprehended in terms of the source domain container. The linguistic expressions of the conceptual metaphor are shown in:

19. "Coins had yielded nothing" (Pg. 2, L 24)

20. "The walkers sleepstill" (Pg. 2, L 13-14)

21. "The man sees himself as he is, but pushed back into time already done" (Pg. 99 L1-3)

For Example (19) above, yielded is conceptualized as acknowledging the limitations of time or time constraints, while in (20) still implies freezing time, pausing the clock or suspending activity within the container of time and for (20) push-back implies the reorganization or rescheduling appointments. The noticeable features that can be conceptualized from the source domain container and the target domain time as follows:  

Source Domain: (Container)  Target Domain: (Time)

Container    Time period

Emptying    Wasting time

Filling     Filling time

Contents     Events/Experiences

Size     Duration

Shape     Structure

8. People are Machines

The source domain machines is a part of a network of concepts that can be conceptualized, although the corresponding to the target domain people is similarly part of a network of concepts that have an exclusive link, which enables mapping features from the source to the target domain. Machine is a complex system that uses energy, materials and information to perform specific tasks or functions. It can be physical, electrical or digital and can range from simple devices to complex systems. Consider the following examples:   

22. "Walking corpse holds out the exact fare" (Pg. 2, L 10)

23. "Dwarfs unable to run away" (Pg. 2, L 14-15)

24. "Dragging them after us" (Pg. 96 L16)

As shown in (22), the walking corpse is understood as functioning but not thriving, going through the motions but lacking vitality or purpose, while for (23), Dwarfs is conceptualized as limited capacity or functionality, where one feels like they’re not operating at full capacity, or that they’re being held back by limitation or obstacles and, in (24), Dragging implies resistance or friction, where a machine is experiencing opposition or hindrance in its operation leading to reduced efficiency or effectiveness. It leads one to consider certain correspondences as mappings between the two conceptual domains as follows:

Source Domain: (Machines)  Target Domain: (People)

Machine    Person

Functioning    Behavior

Malfunctioning   Breakdown

Control    Agency

Energy    Motivation

Maintenance   Self-care

9. People are Corpses

The metaphor contained two conceptual domains that can be conceptualized. The concept of corpses as a source domain is the lifeless body of a deceased person or animal. We can understand that in the above conceptual metaphor, the constituent elements in corpses form a systematic way of talking about people as a target domain. The linguistic expressions include:

25. "Walking corpse holds out the exact fare" (Pg. 2, L 10)

26. "The flesh of the snout accomplished a grotesque retreat from the teeth" (Pg. 28 L9-10)

27. "Looked like something that had been finally destroyed a long time back" (Pg. 180 L17-18)

In Example (25) above, walkingcorpses is conceptualized as disconnected, where individuals are going through the motions of life without feeling, passion or purpose. While in (26), retreat implies as pulling back from social interactions, relationships or activities due to fear, anxiety or emotional pain and for (27), Destroyed is conceptualized as losing one’s sense of identity or purpose, where individuals struggle to find meaning, direction or fulfillment in their lives. We can put down sets of connections between the constituent elements of the source and those of the target as in:

Source Domain :( Corpses)   Target Domain: (People)

Corpse      Person

Decay      Deterioration

Lifelessness     Emotional numbness

Fragility     Vulnerability

Rot      Corruption

 

10. People are Small Being

The metaphor of people as small being focuses on the source domain element and the target domain element was presented in such a way that it evokes such features that correspond with that of the source. Therefore, when the target (people) and source (small being) were merged, the resulting conceptual metaphor yields some linguistic expressions that reflect our thinking as follows:

28. "Dwarfs unable to run away" (Pg. 2, L 14-15)

29. "Lean figures emerged as if to threaten him..." (Pg. 103 L14-15)

30. "In the examination hall he finds all movement impossible" (Pg. 99 L 5-6)

As shown in (28), dwarfsimply vulnerability, immature, where peoples struggle to develop, while in (29), lean is conceptualized as efficient or streamlined and for (30), impossible is metaphorically understood as feeling stuck, trapped or unable to move forward due to fear, anxiety or self-doubt. As we can see, when a source domain is allied to the target, only some features of the target are brought into focus, as in the following mapping structures:

Source Domain: (Small Beings)   Target Domain: (People)

Small being      Person

Vulnerability       Powerlessness

Size       Importance

Fragility       Weakness

Dependence      Need

11. Emotions are Forces

The coming up together between the source (Force) and the target (Emotions) concepts form the conceptual metaphor emotions are forces. Emotions are complex psychological and physiological states that people experience in response to various stimuli, which includes internal thoughts, external events and social interactions, where forces are pushes or pulls that can cause objects to change their motion or shape. In the conceptual metaphor, there exist some linguistic expressions that guide us in construing one concept in terms of another as follows:

31. "A strong unusual desire" (Pg. 98 L2-3)

32. "Sometimes a certain type of relief” (Page 111 L 28)

33. "The man saw his mother-in-law's face contract, oozing shame and hate mixed together" (Pg. 134 L 3-5)

As shown in Example (31) above, desire clearly means pulling or drawing, where our desires exert a force that pulls us in a particular direction, influencing our choices and action, while in (32) relief is conceptualized as a sense of freedom or liberty and in (33) hate is metaphorically understood as a distance, separation or rejection. We can put down sets of connections between the constituent elements of the source and those of the target as follows:

Source Domain: (Forces)   Target Domain: (Emotions)

Force      Emotion

Strength      Intensity

Direction     Focus

Impact      Influence

Resistance     Suppression

12. Argument is War

Elements in the source domain war are mapped onto the elements of the target domain argument. However, when we hear these expressions in the appropriate context, we will interpret them to be about argument. The metaphorical linguistic expressions are as follows:

34. "The kind of bloodlesschuckle that is intended to lead into something the chuckler is itching to say"

(Pg. 141 L34-35).

35. "It might be possible to cutoff the display with the kind of agreement that kills any conversation" (Page 142 L5-6).

36.“The party man there in front of him now, acting as if he saw himself entirely surrounded by hostile things and feared that every coming moment would turn out to be his last’ (Pg. 162 L 5-8)

In Example (34) above, itching is conceptualized as provoking or instigating, where an argument or a person’s words trigger a strong reaction or response, while in (35) cutoff implies as isolation, where someone’s argument is excluded or dismissed and kills is metaphorically understood, refuting where a person’s words are conclusively disproven or destroyed. And in (36) surrounded implies restricted or constrained by opposing views or evidence and hostile is understood as confrontational, where someone’s argument is perceived as attacking, critical or dismissive. The structure of this conceptual metaphor leads one to reflect on certain association domains. The source domain war and the target domain argument could be as follows:

Source Domain :( War)   Target Domain: (Argument)

War      Argument

Attack      Criticism

Defense      Justification

Victory      Persuasion

13. Money is Resource

The target domain is understood in terms of the source domain. From the above conceptual metaphor, we have money as the target domain and resource as the source domain. The linguistic expressions here are:

37."Rich should have this effect on the poor" (Pg. 131 L13)

38. "Now another group of bellies will be bursting with the country's riches!" (Pg. 158 L2-3)

39. Coins had yield nothing (Pg. 2 L24)

In (37) above, rich implies productivity where financial resources are used to generate more wealth, create opportunities or support growth, while in (38) bursting is understood as abundance and in (39) the yield is conceptualized as returning or paying back. We can also arrive at these correspondences between the constituent elements in the source and that of the target as the following:

Source Domain: (Resource)   Target Domain: (Money)

Resource     Money

Scarcity     Poverty

Abundance    Wealth

Distribution    Allocation

Consumption    Spending

Flow      Circulation

Storage     Savings

14. Touch is Connection

This conceptual metaphor touch is connection constitutes two conceptual domains: the target, touch and the source, connection. There are so many linguistic expressions that when heard in the right context, we deduce them to be about touch. These include:

40. "Wearing a dress that seemed to catch each individual ray of light and aim it straight into the beholding eye" (Pg. 148 L 10-12)

41. "Only human hand that could touch his and not make him feels a stranger to life" (Pg. 153 L 20-21)

42. "She held his hand and led him inside, as if he were a stranger coming into her house, or a lover not sure of himself" (Pg. 160  L 34-35)

As shown in (40) above, catch forms a link or bridge, where two things are able to find a common   ground, create a sense of shared understanding or establish a connection, while for (41) touch is metaphorically understood as connection or intimacy, creating a sense of unity or togetherness and in (42) held is conceptualized as embracing or encompassing creating safety, security or containment. We can also consider certain mapping between these concepts to indicate that the two shared something in common as follows: 

Source Domain: (Connection)   Target Domain: (Touch)

Connection      Touch

Separation      Distance

Union       Intimacy

Support       Comfort

Barrier       Isolation

Bond        Attachment

Link       Relationship

Idealized Cognitive Models (ICMS)

The idealized cognitive model (ICMs) that operate for the creations can be seen in the Table below:

1	Container ICM
2	Human Being ICM
3	Movement ICM
4	Force ICM
5	Object ICM
6	Connection/Proximity ICM

Table 2:  Summary of the Idealized Cognitive Model (ICM)

 

Each of these ICMs is discussed in the following subsection. At this point, the research shows the type of experiences which cause the emergence of these ICMs in the analysis.

1. Container ICM

A container ICM encompasses three major compositions, namely interior, exterior and boundary. With respect to the conceptualizations of the following conceptual metaphor throat is a container, and time is container. The present study has provided the types of linguistic expressions, which cause the emergence of the container ICMs.

2. Human Being ICM

For human Being ICM and Non-Human Being ICM, Croft and Cruse (2004) claimed that a human being ICM may presuppose several different ICMs or domains. They further stated that “a human being must be defined relative to the domains of physical objects, living things and volitional agents and several other domains, e.g. emotion” (p. 25). This corresponds with the view of Langacker, who claimed that some domains involve more than one dimension (Langacker, 1987, cited in Croft and Cruse, 2004, p. 25). Therefore, human beings are living things with mental abilities, such as volition, intention, cognition and emotion. The human being ICM consists of the human body that encompasses various structures internal and external, as it is in: machines are living things,people are machine,people are corpses and people are small being.

3. Movement ICMs

Movement ICMs are conceptual models that structure our understanding of movement and motion. These ICMs include the Source-Path-Goal (SPG) schema, motion-as-action, motion-as-change and self-motion vs. caused motion, which influence linguistic expressions, cognitive processing and cultural variations. They shape our perception, attention, and memory for motion events, reflecting complex and multifaceted human conceptualization. As in:movement is uncertainty,progress is movement and movement is progress.

4. Force ICM

Force ICMs conceptualize forces as entities that can exert influence, pressure or power over objects or individuals. This ICM is evident in expressions. Similarly, social influences can be seen as forces. By framing forces in this way, we create a cognitive model that helps us to understand and describe complex, abstract phenomena, such as:emotions are forces and argument is war.

5. Object ICM

Object ICMs view abstract concepts as objects that can be perceived, manipulated or interacted with. Similarly, money can be seen as an object. This ICM allows us to conceptualize intangible ideas and make them more concrete and manageable. As in: height is powerand money is resource.

6. Connection/Proximity ICMs

Connection ICMs conceptualize relationships or interactions between entities as physical connections or bonds. Even physical touch can be seen as a form of connection, as in "Holding hands creates a sense of connection." By framing connections in this way, we create a cognitive model that highlights the importance of relationships and interactions in our lives. As in: touch is connection.

6. Conclusion

This study identified fourteen conceptual metaphors comprising forty-two linguistic expressions in The Beautyful Ones Are Not Yet Born. In addition, 42 linguistic expressions were found to reflect the extensive use of structural metaphors, demonstrating the universality of conceptual metaphors as proposed by Lakoff and Johnson (1980) and Kövecses (2010). Six idealized cognitive models (ICMs) were also identified as instrumental in the creation and interpretation of these metaphors. Overall, the findings affirm the pervasive nature of metaphor in human cognition and language use, showing that Armah’s work vividly exploits metaphorical expressions to reflect moral, social, and political realities. The study underscores the vital role of linguistic expressions in literary creativity serving not only as stylistic devices but also as cognitive tools through which writers convey deep conceptual meanings and critique societal conditions.

 

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