Public-Private Partnership in Housing Delivery: A Case Study of Unity Housing Estate, Bauchi

Cite this article as: Adamu U., Baba H. M. & Bello M. U. (2025). Public-Private Partnership in Housing Delivery: A Case Study of Unity Housing Estate, Bauchi. Zamfara International Journal of Humanities, 3(2), 9-19. www.doi.org/10.36349/zamijoh.2025.v03i02.002.

PUBLIC-PRIVATE PARTNERSHIP IN HOUSING DELIVERY: A CASE STUDY OF UNITY HOUSING ESTATE, BAUCHI 

Usman Adamu
Department of Estate Management and Valuation,
Abubakar Tafawa Balewa University (ATBU) Bauchi

&

Dr. H.M. Baba
Department of Estate Management and Valuation,
Abubakar Tafawa Balewa University (ATBU) Bauchi

&

Dr. M. U. Bello
Department of Estate Management and Valuation,
Abubakar Tafawa Balewa University (ATBU) Bauchi

Abstract: Public-Private Partnerships (PPP) have emerged as a viable solution for housing delivery, especially in addressing housing deficits in urban areas. This study aims to evaluate the effectiveness of PPP in housing delivery, identify critical success factors influencing the success of PPP projects, and assess the prospects and challenges associated with PPP in the housing sector, specifically focusing on Unity Housing Estate in Bauchi. Utilizing a descriptive research design, the research surveyed 76 respondents, including government officials, private developers, and residents, to examine critical success factors, prospects, and challenges associated with PPP in housing delivery. The findings indicate that the most influential critical success factors include government support and policies, financial viability, and stakeholder engagement. The prospects of employing the PPP arrangement in Unity Estate Bauchi are promising, with increased housing availability, improved quality of housing, and enhanced infrastructure identified as key benefits. Furthermore, it was found that government support and policies, financial viability, and stakeholder engagement significantly impact the effectiveness of housing delivery in Unity Estate. In light of these findings, the following key recommendations are proposed: The government should strengthen its support for PPP housing projects by providing clear policies and financial incentives to attract private investment. Additionally, regular communication and collaboration among stakeholders should be encouraged to improve project alignment and commitment. Engaging the local community in planning and implementation will also ensure that projects meet the needs and expectations of beneficiaries.

Keywords: Public-Private Partnerships, Housing Delivery, Unity Housing Estate, Government Support

Introduction

Housing is a fundamental human need and a critical component of urban development. In many rapidly growing cities worldwide, the provision of adequate and affordable housing has become a significant challenge. Bauchi Metropolis, located in northeastern Nigeria, exemplifies this struggle. The urban population in Bauchi has been steadily increasing due to natural population growth and migration from rural areas, resulting in heightened demand for housing. According to Habibu (2017), the rapid urbanization of Bauchi has not been matched by an equivalent increase in housing supply, leading to a persistent housing shortage.

Public-Private Partnerships (PPP) have emerged as a viable approach to address various urban challenges, including housing shortages. PPP can be defined as cooperative arrangements between the public sector and private entities to achieve common objectives (Alkhathlan, 2013). The increasing reliance on PPP in infrastructure and public services reflects the urgent need to meet rising demands efficiently (Osei-Kyei & Chan, 2017). Two primary drivers for adopting PPP are the activation of private sector funding for public services and the utilization of private expertise for large-scale investments (Bovaird, 2014). This model has seen widespread application across different sectors, particularly in housing, to provide affordable options for low-income populations.

The rationale for promoting PPP in housing delivery lies in its potential to enhance multi-sectoral participation and productivity, ultimately increasing housing affordability and accessibility (Ikekpeazu, 2019). Governments globally are turning to PPP as a financing option for substantial investments aimed at delivering affordable housing and essential infrastructure (UN-Habitat, 2018). This trend underscores the growing recognition of PPP as a critical strategy in addressing housing challenges in urban areas.

In Nigeria, Bauchi State is actively exploring PPP to tackle its housing issues. The decline in oil prices in 2015 led to a budget deficit exceeding 20% in 2016, prompting the Bauchi government to announce the adoption of PPP as a new approach for delivering public services, infrastructure, and housing within its "Bauchi Vision 2030" framework (Biygautane, Hodge, & Gerber, 2016). This initiative aims to increase the supply of affordable housing, reduce costs, and incentivize the private sector to expedite housing development.

While the theoretical framework for PPP suggests a high potential for success, practical implementations often encounter significant challenges. Stakeholders with opposing interests can complicate the delivery of low-cost housing and urban renewal projects through PPP arrangements (Bruggema, 2019). Moreover, empirical studies examining the challenges affecting the implementation of housing PPP projects are limited, both in developing and developed countries. Kavishe, Jeffrson, and Chileshe (2018) emphasize the need for comprehensive analyses of the impediments to effective PPP delivery in housing.

Unity Housing Estate serves as a critical case study within this context, illustrating how public-private collaboration can address housing challenges in Bauchi. Nevertheless, the persistent housing shortage, exacerbated by rising costs that outpace family incomes, calls for an in-depth analysis of the Unity Estate PPP project. This study aims to explore the effectiveness of PPP in housing delivery at Unity Housing Estate, focusing on the critical success factors, prospects, and challenges inherent in this approach. To further investigate these issues, this study seeks to answer the following research questions:

1. What are the critical success factors that influence PPP housing delivery in Unity Estate, Bauchi?

2. What are the prospects of housing delivery in Unity Estate, Bauchi when employing the PPP arrangement scheme?

3. What is the effect of the critical success factors to the effectiveness of Unity Housing Estate, Bauchi?

Literature Review

Public-Private Partnerships (PPP)

Public-Private Partnerships (PPP) are collaborative arrangements between public entities and private sector companies designed to deliver public goods or services. These partnerships leverage private sector funding, expertise; and innovation to execute projects that governments might find challenging to manage alone, particularly in terms of financing and efficiency (Alkhathlan, 2013; Osei-Kyei & Chan, 2017). In the housing sector, PPPs have emerged as a strategic approach to finance, construct; and manage housing projects, offering a viable solution to the persistent housing shortages faced by many urban areas (Payne, 2019).

The effectiveness of PPP models in addressing housing shortages is well-documented in various countries. For instance, Egypt has successfully utilized PPP frameworks to enhance its housing delivery systems, facilitating the construction of affordable housing units through partnerships with private developers. Similarly, India has adopted PPP models to improve urban housing infrastructure, focusing on creating homes for low-income families (Payne, 2019). In South Africa, the government has actively engaged private sector players in housing development to expedite the delivery of social housing, leveraging their expertise and resources to meet urgent housing demands.

However, the success of PPP projects in housing delivery is not without challenges. Bureaucratic delays, financial constraints, and conflicting interests between stakeholders can significantly undermine the effectiveness of these partnerships. Bruggema (2019) notes that stakeholder conflicts often arise due to differing objectives, leading to delays in project implementation and increased costs. Additionally, legal and regulatory constraints may hinder the flexibility needed for effective partnership arrangements, causing further complications in project execution.

Affordable Housing

Affordable housing refers to housing that is economically accessible to households with incomes below the market rate. The definition of affordability varies across contexts but generally emphasizes the relationship between housing costs and household income (Pivo, 2017). In Bauchi, affordability has emerged as a critical issue, as housing prices have escalated beyond the reach of many families. The increasing demand for housing, driven by rapid urbanization and population growth, has exacerbated this challenge, creating a significant gap between housing supply and demand (Alqahtany & Mohanna, 2019).

The role of PPP in addressing these affordability gaps is increasingly recognized as essential for ensuring that low- and middle-income families have access to decent housing. PPP initiatives can provide a framework for mobilizing resources and expertise necessary to deliver affordable housing solutions. Ikekpeazu (2019) argues that through collaborative efforts, stakeholders can pool resources, share risks, and enhance the overall efficiency of housing delivery. The integration of public and private resources can lead to innovative financing models that make housing more affordable and accessible to marginalized populations.

Moreover, the involvement of private developers in housing projects can stimulate competition, ultimately resulting in improved quality and lower costs. The UN-Habitat (2018) emphasizes that engaging the private sector in housing delivery not only increases the availability of affordable housing but also promotes sustainable urban development.

Global Perspectives on PPP in Housing Delivery

Globally, the adoption of PPP frameworks in housing delivery has gained momentum as governments seek innovative solutions to address urban housing shortages. Countries such as South Africa, India, and Egypt provide valuable insights into the diverse applications of PPP in housing projects. In South Africa, for example, the government has actively engaged private developers through PPP arrangements to deliver social housing projects aimed at low-income households. These partnerships have facilitated the construction of affordable housing units while also promoting community development and social cohesion.

In India, the government has implemented various PPP models to enhance housing delivery, particularly in urban areas where demand is high. The success of these models is attributed to the effective collaboration between public authorities and private developers, resulting in improved housing quality and affordability. The Indian experience highlights the importance of establishing clear regulatory frameworks and incentives that encourage private sector participation in housing initiatives.

Similarly, Egypt has embraced PPP as a mechanism to address its housing challenges, with notable projects aimed at providing affordable housing to low-income families. These initiatives often involve long-term contracts between public and private entities, ensuring that both parties share the risks and rewards associated with housing delivery. The Egyptian model serves as a valuable example of how PPP can be leveraged to meet the housing needs of urban populations effectively.

The Nigerian Context

In Nigeria, the housing crisis is characterized by a significant gap between supply and demand, driven by rapid urbanization, population growth, and economic instability. The government has recognized PPP as a viable strategy for addressing these challenges, particularly in urban areas where the need for affordable housing is most acute. Bauchi State, for instance, has adopted PPP as part of its "Bauchi Vision 2030" initiative to enhance housing delivery and improve living conditions for residents.

The decline in oil prices in 2015 led to budget deficits that prompted the Bauchi government to reconsider its approach to funding public services, including housing. By embracing PPP, the government aims to attract private investment to facilitate the construction of affordable housing units. However, the practical implementation of PPP in Nigeria is fraught with challenges, including inadequate infrastructure, insufficient financing mechanisms, and a lack of stakeholder engagement.

The experiences of Unity Housing Estate in Bauchi exemplify both the potential and the hurdles of implementing PPP in housing delivery. Previous studies, such as those conducted by Ahmed (2019) and Umar and Uzaifa (2017), highlight the significance of public-private collaboration in developing Unity Estate, emphasizing the financial models and resource allocation strategies employed. These studies suggest that successful PPP projects rely on transparent financial arrangements and shared responsibilities, contributing to achieving affordability and sustainability in housing delivery.

While existing research provides valuable insights into the dynamics of PPP in housing delivery, a significant knowledge gap persists. Most studies focus on theoretical frameworks rather than empirical analyses of the implementation and performance of PPP projects. There is a pressing need for further research to explore the factors that influence the success of PPP in housing delivery, particularly in the Nigerian context.

Challenges in PPP Implementation

Despite the significant potential of Public-Private Partnerships (PPP) in addressing urban housing shortages, several challenges impede their effective implementation. Legal frameworks play a critical role in the formation and execution of PPP agreements; however, existing legal and regulatory environments are often insufficiently robust to support the complexities of these arrangements. Rigid regulations can limit the flexibility required for effective collaboration between public and private entities, resulting in prolonged approval processes that deter private sector investment (Kavishe, Jeffrson, & Chileshe, 2018). Additionally, bureaucratic inefficiencies, such as poor inter-agency coordination and inadequate communication, can lead to delays in project approvals and resource allocation. These inefficiencies often translate into increased project costs and missed opportunities for delivering affordable housing on schedule (Bruggema, 2019).

Financial constraints further complicate the viability of PPP initiatives, particularly in developing countries where financial markets may be underdeveloped or constrained by regulatory limitations. The dependence on private sector investment means that any economic downturn can lead to reduced investment appetite, exacerbating the challenges of financing (Biygautane, Hodge, & Gerber, 2016). Moreover, conflicting interests among stakeholders can create friction that undermines project outcomes. While public sectors may prioritize social equity, private developers often focus on short-term financial returns, resulting in misalignment of goals (Ikekpeazu, 2019). The lack of private sector investment, often driven by perceived risks and inadequate incentives, further complicates the implementation of PPP housing projects. UN-Habitat (2018) highlights that building a conducive environment for private sector participation requires clear policy guidelines and risk-sharing mechanisms.

Finally, the limited empirical research on PPP housing projects, particularly in Nigeria, underscores the need for more comprehensive studies to inform policy and practice. The scarcity of empirical studies restricts policymakers' ability to design effective strategies for overcoming obstacles in PPP implementation (Kavishe et al., 2018). Additionally, public institutions may lack the necessary expertise to negotiate and manage PPP contracts effectively, leading to poorly structured agreements and ineffective oversight. Training programs aimed at enhancing the capacities of public officials in managing PPPs can improve their effectiveness in executing housing initiatives. Addressing these challenges is crucial for realizing the full potential of PPP in delivering affordable housing solutions in urban areas.

Related Empirical Studies

Several empirical studies have explored the role and impact of Public-Private Partnerships (PPPs) in housing delivery, both in Nigeria and internationally. In Nigeria, Akinyemi (2018) conducted an in-depth study on Public-Private Partnerships in Housing Delivery in Nigeria: Successes and Challenges, which examined the success of PPPs in providing affordable housing in urban areas, particularly in Lagos and Abuja. Using a mixed-method approach that included policy analysis and interviews with public and private stakeholders, Akinyemi found that while PPPs have increased housing availability, affordability remains a significant issue due to high land costs and limited financing options. The study emphasizes the need for regulatory reforms to address these challenges, streamline processes, and enhance PPPs’ effectiveness in affordable housing delivery. This finding echoes similar challenges found in other urban contexts globally, where regulatory, land, and financing constraints have hindered the success of PPPs in meeting affordable housing goals.

Roux (2019), investigated the influence of PPPs on housing affordability, accessibility, and socio-economic outcomes for low-income populations. Through a longitudinal case study of three PPP housing projects, Roux observed that while these partnerships increased housing availability, affordability remained a critical concern. This study underscored the impact of political and economic factors on PPP housing projects, highlighting the importance of government subsidies and community engagement in improving outcomes. Roux’s study suggests that PPPs can be effective in addressing housing needs if governments play a supportive role in financing and policy alignment.

Olayiwola and Lim (2021), examined PPPs in housing: lessons from Malaysia and Nigeria. This study reviewed five PPP housing projects across Malaysia and Nigeria, finding that Malaysia’s more structured approach allowed for improved financing options and streamlined approvals, leading to greater project success. In contrast, challenges in Nigeria, including limited coordination and regulatory bottlenecks, hindered housing delivery through PPPs. The study recommend Nigeria adopt aspects of Malaysia’s model, such as standardized contracts and a dedicated regulatory agency, to improve PPP effectiveness in housing.

Another important study by Green and Donovan (2020), evaluated the impact of public-private partnerships on affordable housing supply in the UK, assessed PPPs’ role in addressing affordable housing shortages in the United Kingdom, focusing on urban regeneration projects in London and Manchester. Employing a quantitative approach, they analyzed data on housing units developed via PPPs over a decade, finding that these partnerships contributed to increased housing availability, but the cost of these units often exceeded affordability targets due to cost overruns and project delays. Green and Donovan suggest adopting risk-sharing mechanisms and increased financial oversight to enhance project outcomes. Their study also highlights the need for incentives from local governments to maintain housing affordability over time.

Finally, Mwangi (2022) investigated PPPS and the challenge of affordable housing in Kenya, which examined barriers to effective PPP implementation in Nairobi’s affordable housing sector. Through interviews with housing experts, government officials, and private sector representatives, Mwangi identified land acquisition, financing challenges, and political interference as major obstacles. Regulatory uncertainties were also a significant deterrent for private sector participation. Mwangi’s research recommends establishing a dedicated PPP housing agency to address these challenges, streamline project approval processes, and increase private sector investment in affordable housing. This recommendation aligns with findings in Nigeria, emphasizing that dedicated PPP agencies could improve coordination, regulatory support, and investment in affordable housing.

In summary, these studies collectively illustrate the potential of PPPs to address housing shortages and improve affordability but highlight common challenges such as high costs, regulatory bottlenecks, financing issues, and political interference. Key recommendations include establishing dedicated PPP regulatory agencies, enhancing financing mechanisms, and implementing supportive policies to increase housing affordability and accessibility through public-private collaboration.

Research Methodology

For this study, a quantitative (descriptive) research design was adopted. Descriptive research is ideal for studies that aim to provide a detailed account of a particular phenomenon by observing and documenting its characteristics (Creswell, 2014). This design was chosen because it allows for the systematic collection and analysis of quantifiable data, providing an in-depth understanding of the effects of Public-Private Partnership (PPP) in housing delivery at Unity Housing Estate, Bauchi. The descriptive approach is particularly suited to this research as it enables the identification and analysis of critical success factors, challenges, and prospects within the PPP housing model. Furthermore, it provides a structured means to capture and present data on stakeholder perceptions, making it appropriate for the study’s objectives.

Study Area

The study area is Unity Housing Estate, located along Bauchi-Jos Road, 15 km from Bauchi Town. The project was initiated in 2009 by the then Governor, Mallam Isa Yuguda, as a typical Public-Private Partnership (PPP) between the Bauchi State government and Terraquest Development Company Limited. Commissioned in 2015, the estate consists of 500 housing units, featuring 2- and 3-bedroom semi-detached apartments, designed to accommodate middle- and low-income families. Strategically located near key urban amenities such as schools and hospitals, Unity Housing Estate offers easy access to essential services. The project is a key example of successful PPP housing delivery, combining government support with private sector investment to address the region’s housing deficit and provide quality, affordable housing for Bauchi’s growing population.

Population of the Study

The population for this study comprises key stakeholders involved in the Public-Private Partnership (PPP) housing delivery process at Unity Housing Estate, Bauchi. This includes residents of the estate, government officials from the Ministry of Housing and Environment, and staff from Terraquest Development Company Limited. The sample size of   76 was determined using proportional sampling formula.

Sample Frame and Sample Size

Table 1:  Sample frame and Sample size

SN	Institutions	Population	Sample Selected
1.	Federal Mortgage Bank, Bauchi Branch	60	12
2.	Ministry of Housing and Environment Bauchi	120	24
3.	Terraquest Nigeria Limited	200	40
Total		480	76

(Source: Field Survey, 2024

Sample Technique

A combination of simple random sampling and purposive sampling techniques was used for this study. Simple random sampling ensures that every respondent within the population has an equal chance of being selected, thereby reducing bias. Purposive sampling was employed to focus on key stakeholders relevant to the housing delivery process, ensuring that their insights are captured effectively.

Method of Data Collection

In this study, a structured questionnaire was used to gather necessary information to address the research questions. The questionnaire included closed-ended questions designed to quantify perceptions of housing quality, user satisfaction, and the effectiveness of the PPP model. It also contained multiple-choice and Likert scale questions, all aimed at providing comprehensive insights into the research objectives.

Results and Discussion

This chapter presents the results and discussion based on data collected from the respondents regarding the research questions. Data analysis on demographic information was carried out using frequency distributions. The results from descriptive and linear regression analyses, conducted to address the research questions, are presented to provide insights into the critical success factors, prospects, and effectiveness of PPP housing delivery in Unity Estate, Bauchi.

 

Demographic Information of the Respondents

Data on the respondents' demographics was gathered. to evaluate the respondents' demographics, frequency and percentage analyses were performed, and the results were given.

 

Table 2: Demographic Information of the Respondents

Demographic Characteristics	Categories	Frequency (f)	Percentage (%)
Gender	Male	45	59.2
	Female	31	40.8
	Total	76	100
Age	18-25 years	4	5.3
	26-35 years	28	36.8
	36-45 years	22	28.9
	46-55 years	12	15.8
	Above 55 years	10	13.2
	Total	76	100
Educational level	Primary	0	0.0
	Secondary	20	26.3
	Tertiary	56	73.7
	Total	76	100
Occupation	Civil servant	44	57.9
	Private employee	32	42.1
	Self-employed	0	0.0
	Unemployed	0	0.0
	Total	76	100
Housing Status	Tenant	24	31.6
	Owner occupier	44	57.9
	Others	8	10.5
	Total	76	100
Years of Residency	1-5 years	2	2.6
	6-10 years	12	15.9
	11-15 years	28	36.8
	Above 16 years	34	44.7
	Total	76	100

(Source: Field survey, 2024)

 

The demographic profile of respondents in Table 2 revealed that 59.2% were male and 40.8% were female, with the largest age group being 26-35 years (36.8%). Most participants (73.7%) had tertiary education, 57.9% were civil servants, and 57.9% owned their homes. Additionally, 44.7% of respondents had resided in Unity Estate for over 16 years, while 36.8% had lived there for 11-15 years.

Critical success factors that influence PPP housing delivery in Unity Estate, Bauchi

Table 3: Critical Success Factors for PPP Housing Delivery

Critical Success Factor	Mean Score	Standard Deviation
Government policies are supportive of PPP housing delivery	4.35	0.65
Financial management practices in PPP projects are effective	4.28	0.73
Stakeholders are actively involved in PPP housing projects	4.15	0.70
Project management practices are efficient in PPP housing projects	4.12	0.68
Technical expertise is available for PPP housing projects	4.0	0.75
There is transparency in the management of PPP housing projects	3.98	0.82
The local community is involved in PPP housing projects	3.95	0.80
PPP projects are completed on time	3.85	0.85

(Source: Field survey, 2024)

Table 3 indicates that the most critical success factor for effective PPP housing delivery is government support and policies, with the highest mean score of 4.35. Financial viability follows as the second most important factor (4.28), while stakeholder engagement ranks third (4.15). Other significant factors include project management (4.12), technical expertise (4.0), transparency (3.98), community involvement (3.95), and timely project completion (3.85).

Prospects of housing delivery in Unity Estate, Bauchi when employing the PPP arrangement scheme

 

Table 4: Prospect of PPP Housing Delivery

Prospects	Mean Score	Standard Deviation
Employing the PPP scheme will increase housing availability in Unity Estate	4.25	0.72
The quality of housing will improve with PPP arrangement	4.10	0.78
PPP schemes will enhance infrastructure in Unity Estate	4.05	0.80
PPP housing delivery will contribute to economic development	3.98	0.82
There will be a social benefit from PPP housing projects	3.90	0.84

(Source: Field survey, 2024)

Table 4 shows that respondents believe that employing the PPP arrangement scheme in Unity Estate, Bauchi will significantly increase housing availability (mean score = 4.25), improve the quality of housing (mean score = 4.10), enhance infrastructure in Unity Estate (mean score= 4.05), economic development (mean score = 3.98) and social benefit (mean score = 0.84).

 

Discussions and Findings

The findings reveal that critical success factors influencing PPP housing delivery in Unity Estate, Bauchi, include government support and policies, financial viability, stakeholder engagement, efficient project management, technical expertise, transparency, and community involvement. Among these, government support and financial viability emerged as the most influential factors, aligning with Yescombe (2017), who emphasized the necessity of a supportive regulatory environment and financial sustainability for attracting private sector investment and ensuring project success. Additionally, this study highlights the importance of stakeholder engagement and community involvement, which were less emphasized in Yescombe’s work. Engaging stakeholders and involving the community in planning and implementation significantly enhance project goal alignment and acceptance, promoting a collaborative approach essential for successful PPP housing delivery.

Moreover, the findings indicate that the PPP arrangement in Unity Estate holds promising prospects for housing delivery, with anticipated outcomes such as increased housing availability, improved housing quality, enhanced infrastructure, and social benefits. These results resonate with Akintoye et al. (2013), who reported significant improvements in housing delivery through PPP schemes. The positive outcomes can be attributed to the synergistic efforts of the public and private sectors, allowing them to leverage their respective strengths. However, sustaining these prospects requires continuous stakeholder engagement. The involvement of government agencies, private investors, and the local community is crucial for maintaining momentum and ensuring the long-term success of PPP housing projects. Furthermore, findings show that government support, financial viability, and stakeholder engagement significantly impact the effectiveness of Unity Housing Estate, reinforcing Zhang's (2021) emphasis on the role of effective government policies and financial structures in the success of PPP projects. In summary, while the findings align with existing literature, they also underscore the need for stakeholder engagement and community involvement as essential components for the sustainability of PPP housing initiatives.

Conclusion

The study concludes that strong government support and favourable policies are essential for the success of PPP housing projects, with regulatory frameworks, financial incentives, and land provision playing critical roles in facilitating these partnerships. Financial stability and viability are crucial for attracting private investment and ensuring the continuity of PPP housing initiatives, underscoring the need for adequate funding and effective financial management. Moreover, the active engagement of all stakeholder’s government agencies, private partners, and the community is vital for project alignment and commitment. Implementing effective project management practices, including planning, monitoring, and execution, is necessary for the timely and successful delivery of housing projects. Additionally, the involvement of skilled professionals and the maintenance of transparency and accountability throughout the project lifecycle are important for ensuring quality and building trust among stakeholders. By addressing these factors, the effectiveness of PPP housing delivery in Unity Estate, Bauchi, can be significantly enhanced, resulting in increased housing availability, improved quality, and overall social and economic development.

Recommendations

        i.            The government should strengthen its support for PPP housing projects by providing clear policies, financial incentives, and land resources. Creating a favourable regulatory environment will attract private investors and facilitate project implementation.

      ii.            Financial institutions should offer accessible and flexible financing options for PPP housing projects. Additionally, proper financial planning and management should be emphasized to ensure the sustainability of the projects.

    iii.            Regular communication and collaboration among stakeholders should be encouraged. Establishing platforms for stakeholder interaction and feedback will improve project alignment and commitment.

 

References

1.      Ahmed, I. (2019). Public-private partnerships and housing delivery in

developing economies: An analysis of financing models and resource allocation. International Journal of Housing Policy, 19(4), 562-580. https://doi.org/10.1080/14616718.2019.1632329

2.      Akintoye, A., Beck, M., & Hardcastle, C. (2013). Public-private partnerships: managing risks and opportunities. Wiley-Blackwell.

3.      Akinyemi, O. (2018). Public-private partnerships in housing delivery in Nigeria: Successes and challenges. Lagos: Housing Development Journal, 12(3), 78-92.

4.      Alkhathlan, K. (2013). Public-Private partnerships: A cooperative framework for investment. Journal of Urban Development, 5(2), 45-59.

5.      Alqahtany, A., & Mohanna, A. (2019). Housing affordability in urban areas: A case study of Bauchi Metropolis. International Journal of Housing Policy, 19(4), 500-516. https://doi.org/10.1080/19491247.2019.1586281

6.      Biygautane, M., Hodge, G., & Gerber, R. (2016). Public-private partnerships in Nigeria: The case of Bauchi Vision 2030. Nigerian Journal of Public Administration, 11(1), 20-34.

7.      Bovaird, T. (2014). Public-private partnerships: The future of urban development? Urban Studies, 51(7), 1365-1383. https://doi.org/10.1177/0042098013514534

8.      Bruggema, R. (2019). The role of stakeholders in public-private partnerships: Lessons from housing projects. Construction Management and Economics, 37(1), 14-29. https://doi.org/10.1080/01446193.2018.1546910

9.      Creswell, J. W. (2014). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches (4th ed.). SAGE Publications

10.  Green, R., & Donovan, J. (2020). Evaluating the Impact of Public-Private Partnerships on Affordable Housing Supply in the UK. Journal of Housing Policy, 14(2), 211-234. https://doi.org/10.1080/2042139X.2020.1456739

11.  Habibu, A. (2017). Urbanization and housing shortages in Bauchi: A growing concern. Nigerian Journal of Geography, 15(3), 155-170.

12.  Ikekpeazu, A. (2019). Enhancing housing affordability through public-private partnerships. Housing Studies, 34(5), 700-718. https://doi.org/10.1080/02673037.2018.1510473

13.  Kavishe, K. J., Jeffrson, I., & Chileshe, N. (2018). Challenges affecting the delivery of housing public-private partnership projects in Tanzania. Journal of Construction in Developing Countries, 23(2), 107-121. https://doi.org/10.21315/jcdc2018.23.2.7

14.  Mwangi, J. (2022). Public-private partnerships and the challenge of affordable housing in Kenya. Journal of African Urban Studies, 9(1), 46-62. https://doi.org/10.1080/2164144X.2022.1638476

15.  Olayiwola, O., & Lim, L. (2021). Public-private partnerships in housing: lessons from Malaysia and Nigeria. International Journal of Housing Policy, 17(5), 345-367. https://doi.org/10.1080/14616718.2021.1773946

16.  Osei-Kyei, R., & Chan, A. (2017). The evolution of public-private partnerships in the urban sector: A review of the literature. International Journal of Urban Science, 21(1), 28-42. https://doi.org/10.1080/12265934.2016.1261728

17.  Payne, G. (2019). Housing policy in developing countries: Public-private partnerships. Housing Studies, 34(6), 889-905. https://doi.org/10.1080/02673037.2018.1483752

18.  Pivo, G. (2017). Understanding housing affordability: Key concepts and issues. Journal of Housing Economics, 35, 12-20. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhe.2016.09.001

19.  Roux, J. (2019). Assessing the impact of public-private partnerships on housing in South Africa. Urban Development Review, 6(4), 121-137. https://doi.org/10.1080/2151377X.2019.1452321

20.  Umar, Z., & Uzaifa, A. (2017). The effectiveness of PPPs in housing development: Case study of Unity Estate. Journal of Urban and Regional Studies, 12(2), 115-132.

21.  United Nations Human Settlements Programme (UN-Habitat). (2018). The role of public-private partnerships in achieving sustainable urban development. Global report on human settlements. https://unhabitat.org/global-report-on-human-settlements-2018

22.  Yescombe, E. R. (2017). Public-private partnerships: Principles of policy and finance. Butterworth-Heinemann.

23.  Zhang, X. (2021). The importance of government support in public-private partnerships. Journal of Infrastructure Development, 13(2), 101-113. https://doi.org/10.1177/09749306211032003