Fulfulde, A Verbal Language: A Semantic Analysis of Verbal and Nominal Relationship

Cite this article as: Kalgo, U. K., & Ibrahim, M. J. (2026). Fulfulde, a verbal language: A semantic analysis of verbal and nominal relationship. Sokoto Journal of Linguistics and Communication Studies (SOJOLICS), 2(2), 30-39. https://doi.org/10.36349/sojolics.2026.v02i02.003

By

Umaru Kiro Kalgo

Department of French

Faculty of Arts

Usmanu Danfodiyo University, Sokoto

https://orcid.org/0009-0000-9231-8777

umarukiro@yahoo.ca

+2348065345514,

&

Maji Jamilu Ibrahim

Department of French

Faculty of Arts

Federal University of Lafia

https://orcid.org/0009-0006-1039-1051

jimex4life@gmail.com

Abstract

Fulfulde is the language of Fulɓe, an ethnic group of nomads spread across nations from Western to Eastern Africa (Senegal to Sudan and Ethiopia), as going back to their ancestry. When we put together, the nomads and the sedentary, the Fulɓe as a tribe count more than twenty million speakers, both natives and learners. Historically, Fulɓe came to Africa from the Middle East, but their origin is still subject to great speculations. For its particular trait, a great number of linguists agree that Fulfulde is a verb-based language. This is to say that most of the linguistic elements of Fulfulde language derive from a verbal root, and this phenomenon is more pronounced in nominal formation. It is clearly noticed that human, vegetal, animal and environmental traditional names in Fulfulde trace their origin from verbs. This paper aims at proving right or otherwise this hypothesis through an investigative base methodology. Fulfulde verbs have been collected at random, the names that derived from them traced and their derivational process investigated and explained. The main objective of this investigative paper is to bring out this specific particularity of Fulfulde, a language among the major African languages.

Keywords: Fulɓe, Verb, Name, Derivational Morphology, Word Syntax.

1 Introduction

One thing that surprised the European Explorers and Colonial Masters was the peculiarity of Fulɓe as a tribe, vis-à-vis of her neighbours in the West African Sub-region. This peculiarity spanned from their physical traits to their mod of living and profession (Greenberg 3-4). As this tribe presents some unique characteristics, so also its language, the Fulfulde, has amazing features in its morphsyntactic functions. In this paper, we intend to carry an investigative analysis on the role the verb plays in the formation of nouns, in accordance to Mukoshy (1991) when argues that most of the Fulfulde linguistic elements derived from verbal roots.

We randomly selected more than one hundred verbs that give us hundreds of names. The formation process of these names is analysed based on the affixations involved, and the names formed are classified as nouns or adjectives. But we wish to specify that, out of the six major Fulfulde dialects, according to Arnott (1970: 3), we are using Sokoto Fulfulde dialect. This information is important as we come from different zones and different dialects; therefore, tolerance is highly sought for in our interregional interaction. The Sokoto Fulfulde dialect covers the North West of Nigeria and the West Central of Niger Republic. 

 It is of importance to underline here that Fulfulde verbs are grouped into three, according to their infinitive forms as follows:

Group 1. The verbs that end with –ugo,  Group 2. The verbs that end with –aago, Group 3. The verbs that end with –eego.

This grouping may play a vital role in the analysis of the data collected for this paper. But for the sake of organisation, we followed the order of Group 1 to 3 for the presentation and the analysis of the data collected. Below are the verbs and the names that derived from them.

FULFULDE VERBS AND NOMINAL DERIVATION

Group 1

1. Aawugo → Awdi, awre,

2. Ɓantugo → Ɓangaaɗo, Ɓanganaaɗo,

3. Ɓartugo → Ɓarti, Ɓarto, ɓartugol,

4. Ɓernugo → ɓernde,

5. Ɓirugo →Ɓiro, ɓiraaɗam, ɓire,

6. Ɓoccugo → ɓoccol,

7. Ɓolugo → Ɓolowo, Ɓolol

8. Daɗugo → daɗannde, daɗol.

9. Doggugo → Doggudu, dogguru,

10. Dunnugo → Duɗal (duɗe)

11. Durugo → Durngol, duroore, durannde, durdude,

12. Ɗeɗɗugo → ɗeɗɗere,

13. Eltugo → Elto, Eltaanga, Eltaaɗo

14. Faayugo → Fayre, Paayaaɗo, Paayuɗo

15. Femmbugo → Pemmbol, Pemmbowo, Pemmbaaɗo

16. Fennugo → Fenndirde, penndam, pennol,

17. Ferugo → Perol, Pereejo

18. Fiyugo → Piiki, piyuɗo, piyaaɗo

19. Fiɓugo → fiɓre, piɓol, fimnde, Piyaaɗo

20. Fooɗugo → Pooɗol, Pooɗaaɗo

21. Fuɗugo → puddi, fuɗo, puɗuki

22. Funngugo → funngirde, funngo, punnguɗo 

23. Haɓugo → Haɓre, Kabudo, Kaɓaaɗo

24. Haɓɓugo →Kaɓɓol, haɓɓere, Kabbaaɗo

25. Hersugo → hersa, Kersuɗo, Kersaaɗo

26. Hiirugo →Kiiro, hirde,

27. Hippugo → kippel,

28. Hoɗugo → Hoɗi, hodde, hoɗorde

29. Hottugo → Kotte, kottirgol, hottungo,

30. Hoowugo → Koogal, Koowaɗo, Koowuɗo

31. Huɓɓugo → kuɓɓol,

32. Hultugo → Hulto, hultorde, Kultuɗo

33. Janngugo → Janngirde, jannde, janngowo, Jannguɗo

34. Jannyugo → Jannyi, Jaa’o, Jaa’ooji, Jannyuɗi, Jannyaaɗi

35. Juggugo → Juggal, Juggaaɗi

36. Latugo → lataangal, latunge, lataaɗo

37. Layugo → layoore, layol, layungol,

38. Lilugo → Lilaaɗo, Liluɗo, lilal,

39. Majjugo → majjere, majjuɗo,

40. Marugo →mardi, marol, maraaɗo, maruɗo

41. Moɗugo → Moɗorgol, moɗuɗo, moɗaaɗo

42. Moorugo → Morgol, Mooriiɗo, Mooraaɗo

43. Munyugo → Munyi, munyal, munyaaɗo, munyuɗo

44. Nanngugo → Nannganaaye, nanngaaru, nangardu, nannguɗo, nanngaaɗo

45. Namugo → Namarde, namrude, Namoowo 

46. Noddugo → Noddol, noddaango, noddaaɗo, nodduɗo

47. Nyallugo → Nyale, nyalli, nyalawma, Nyalluɗo

48. Oorugo → Oori, Ooro, orngol, ordugol,

49. Raarugo → daarorgal, darɗe, daaruɗo, daaraaɗo

50. Remugo → demal, demol, demowo, ndemaanga,

51. Reenugo → deenol, rento, reeno, deenaaɗo, deenuɗo

52. Rimugo → dimol, dimngol, dimuɗo, dimaaɗo,

53. Ruumugo → Duumol, ruumirde, rumtowo, duumuɗo

54. Sanyugo → Cayri, Canyo, Canyaandi

55. Seeɗugo → Ceeɗu, sedde, ceeɗol, Ceeɗuɗo

56. Semtugo → Semteende, cemtuɗo, Cemtaaɗo

57. Sodugo → Codiri, codol, Codaangel, coduɗo

58. Suuɗugo → Suuɗiiɓe, cuddi, Cuududo, Cuuɗaaɗo

59. Tagugo → tagaadi, tagu, Taguɗo, tagaaɗo

60. Tamugo → Tamre, tamol, tamuɗo, tamaandi

61. Te’ugo → teegal, Te’uɗo, te’aaɗo

62. Teenugo → teenol, teenowo, teenoyɗo

63. Tiimugo → tiimol, Tiimuɗo, tiimaaɗi

64. Tonngugo → tonngoode, Tonnguɗo, tonngaango,

65. Tonngutugo → tonngitaanga, tonngutuɗo

66. Tummbugo → Tummba, tummbugel, Tummbuɗo, 

67. Unugo → Unki, unirgal, unoowo, unuɗo

68. Wuuwugo → Buuwirɗi, buuwol, wuuwaandu, buuwuɗo

69. Wammugo → Bammol, Bammowo, Bammuɗo

70. Wamugo → Bamol, Bamuɗo

71. Wasugo → Ngaska, Gasol, basol, Basuɗo, Mbasaanga, Basaaɗum

72. Wernugo → Werde, beero, bernuɗo, bernaaɗo

73. Wooɓugo → Mbooɓam, Booɓuɗo, Mbooɓaaɗam,

74. Worɗugo → Mbordi, Mborɗuki,

75. Wujjugo → Nguyka, gujjo, Gujjuɗo, Gujjaaɗo

76. Wurɗugo → Gurɗo,

77. Yettugo → Yetti, yettoore, Gettaaɗo, Gettuɗo

78. Yarugo → Njaram, yardude, yardaado, Jaruɗo, Njaraaɗam

79. Ƴaawugo → Ƴaawol, ƴaake,

80. Ƴamugo → Ƴamre, Ƴamal, Ƴamuɗo, Ƴamaaɗo 

Group 2

1. Ardaago →Arɗo, ardangal, Ardiiɗo

2. Cewtaago → Sewto, Cewtiido, Cewtaande

3. Daraago → Darnde, darannde, dariiɗo,

4. Higaago → Higo, Higootiragu, Kigaaɗo, kigiiɗo

5. Hoolaago → Hoolaare, hoolo, kooliiɗo, koolaaɗo

6. Hunaago → Hunayeere, kuniiɗo,

7. Johaago → Johaare, Johiiɗo

8. Jooɗaago → Jonnde, Jooɗa, Jooɗiiɗo

9. Maajaago → Maajo, maaji, Maajiiɗo, maajaaɗi

10. Mantaago → Mantoore, Mantiiɗo, Mantaaɗo

11. Raddaago → Raddo, Daddiiɗo, Daddaaɗo

12. Raɗaago → Raɗorde, Daɗiiɗo,

13. Riggaago → Riggaango, Diggiiɗo,

14. Soggaago → Soggirre, Coggiiɗi, Coggiiɗo

15. Suuɗaago → Cuuɗiiɗo, Cuuɗaaɗo

16. Tammaago → tammunde, Tammaaɗo, Tammiiɗo

Group 3

1. Yaafeego → Yaafuye, Jafaaɗo

2. Tunndeego → Tunndiiɗo, Tunnda, Tunndaaɗo

3. Fukkineego → Pukkundi, Pukkinaaɗo

4. Hubeego → Hubahubaaru, Kubaaɗo

5. Menngeego → Menngo, Menngaaɗo

6. Manteego → Mantoore, Manaare, Mantaaɗo

7. Maneego → Maniinge, Manaaɗo,

II. 1. Remarks

We find it necessary to make some remarks on the disparity in the selection of the verbs. It is noticed that we present only few verbs each for the second and third groups, while we present many verbs from the first group. The reason is that the larger number of Fulfulde verbs belong to the first group (-ugo) for being mostly of active verbs. While it is to be noted that the verbs of the first group (-ugo) are of active voice in their majority, the verbs of the second group (-aago) are reflexive in their majority. However, the verbs of the second group (-aago) selected here are incidentally active in nature. But the verbs of the third group (-eego) here selected are all of passive voice, as they are generally supposed to be.

We need to clarify some developments here. It has been the opinion of many that the verbs of the first group (-ugo) are active verbs, the verbs of the second group (-aago) are reflexive and that the verbs of the third group (-eego) are passive. However, it has been discovered that the first and second groups have both active and passive verbs (Kiro - BEST: IJHAMS 2016:206). 

II.2 Noun’s formation from verb

Having hundreds of names that derived from more than a hundred of verbs, it naturally raises curiosity to venture into finding the derivational process that produces such great number of names from verbs. Observing all the verbs involved in the derivational process, we find that a name takes the same initial as that of the verb from which it derived, or the substitute of that same initial of the verb. This goes in the same line as the Fulfulde verbs change initials to mark plural (Habu soodii → Habu & Sani coodii) or an inversion between subject and predicate (Adilla wuro → ndillaa wuro). We can see that ‘s’ become ‘c’ to mark plural, in the first example, while ‘d’ becomes ‘nd’ to mark inversion between the verb dilla and the subject ‘a’ that came at the end of the verb as highlighted. Let us consider the following cases as illustrative examples of mutation in derivational process.

Table 1

Fennugo → Fenndirde, penndam, pennol, pennuɗo

 2. Haɓɓugo →Kaɓɓol, haɓɓere, kaɓɓuɗo

Reenugo → Deenol, rento, reeno, deenuɗo

Seeɗugo → Ceeɗu, sedde, ceeɗol, ceeɗuɗo

Wasugo → Ngaska, Gasol, basol, Basuɗo

Wooɓugo → Mbooɓam, Booɓuɗo

7. Yarugo → Njaram, yardude, yardaado, jaruɗo

The seven examples here above are the samples for the derivational processes from verb to name. This sampling could stand as a general rule for the derivational process by which verbs produce names in the Fulfulde grammar. It should be noted that as a practice, the initial letters interchange in the speech, as we can see, in the following equations representing the examples above:

1. F → F & P, 2. H →K & H, 3. R → D & R, 4. S → C & S, 5.W → Ng, G & B, 6.W→ Mb & B, 7.Y → Nj, Y & J. 

While critically examining the nominal formation from Fulfulde verb, we realise that the process involves the transformational generative grammar. We can use the same seven examples here above to illustrate this argument, as there is transformational process in anyone we consider, and these seven cases serve as sample for the Fulfulde nominal formation from verb. In observing the verb Fennugo that gives Fenndirde, penndam, pennol, the first four letters are maintained in the three names obtained, with F changing to P in the 2^nd and 3^rd names, then we have -dirde, -dam and -ol respectively replacing the infinitive desinence (-ugo) of the concerned verb. From the verb Haɓɓugo that gives Kaɓɓol and haɓɓere, we have K for H and then -ol and –ere respectively replacing the infinitive desinence (-ugo) of the verb haɓɓugo. In the case of Yarugo that gives Njaram, yardude, yardaado, we have Nj that replaces the initial Y of the infinitive form and then –am, –dude and –daado that respectively replace the infinitive’s desinence (-ugo) of the affected verb.

From the above observation, we could conclude that the intervention of the affixations, in nominal formation from Fulfulde verb, is based on the transformational generative grammar.

ii. Types Of Names Derived from Verb in Fulfulde

In the derivational process that produces names from verbs, suffixes and prefixes intervene and result in the creation of a variety of names according to their meaning and function in the speech. It is common knowledge that verbal system produces an actor, an agent and an object, and this process cuts across languages to be among the linguistic universals. It is based on this grammatical fact that we classify the Fulɓe derivational names produced from verbs.

II.1. State names  

These types of names describe the state of being of the object produced by the verb in a speech. As we said earlier, when a verb is actualised in a sentence, there is an agent of the action expressed by the verb and there is also an object produced by the action of the verb or on which the verb exercises its effect. When we consider the verb Ɓirugo (to press), we have the name ɓiraaɗam (milked milk). Many things are pressed to extract a beverage, but in the nomadic Fulɓe linguistic culture ɓiraaɗam simply means fresh milk, just extracted before coagulating. In term of the conjugation’s nomenclature, ɓiraaɗam could be classified as past participle eventually taken as an djectival name. 

In the same vein, from Wasugo (to dig) we have Ngaska (a hole) which is a name that designates a state of a space that came to be as a result of the action of the verb Wasugo (to dig). The normal form of this name would be ngasaaka (the dug one), but it has been shortened to ngaska for the sake of stylistic taste.

2. Instrumental names

When a verb is described as an action word, in certain cases, there are instruments that are used to perform the actions or works expressed by the verb. In Fulfulde linguistic culture these tools derive their names in most cases from verbs that describe the actions or works they are used to perform. Let us consider again the same verbs we used in number 1 above. Thus, for verb Ɓirugo (to press) we have ɓirdude, the container used to press milk from the cow. In the nomadic Fulɓe culture, there is always a dedicated calabash for milking cows and the name is ɓirdude; and when a child is asked to bring ɓirdude, he has to look for it, but will never bring some other calabash. Therefore, ɓirdude is a name of a container instrument used to perform the action of Ɓirugo.

Another name of great importance here, from the same verb Ɓirugo (to press), is ɓire which refers to the cow being milked, a cow that produces milk. There is need to specify here that ɓire would be ɓireteenge, and this is a cow being milked habitually. The form ɓire is therefore the short form for the sake of stylistic taste.

In the same vein, from Wasugo (to dig) the name basirgel is coined to refer to the instrument that is used to perform the action of digging. The form basirgel is neither a past participle nor shortened. 

II. 3. Agential names

As we have earlier said, in a sentence there are three major constituents, the subject, the verb and the object. It is based on this syntactic structure that the Fulfulde and French sentences are formulised in SVO (Kiro- La catégorie 2006). And generally, the subject of the actualised verb is supposed to be the agent that performs the action described by the verb. Therefore, the Agential name refers to the entity that performs the action in a sentence, in a speech. Let us take the verb Remugo (to cultivate) that produces demowo among others, as a sample for many verbs whose derivational process results to creating names with –oowo. We want to notify here that such names ending with –o like demowo or demo, kirowo or kiro… are shortened for the sake of stylistic taste and economy. The real forms of such names are supposed to be: demoowo (remugo –to cultivate), kiiroowo (hiirugo-to chat), basoowo (wasugo-to dig) and so on.

However, the Agential Names from the verbs of the second group (-aago) do not follow these format of nominalisation. When the verbs of first group (-ugo) give –oowo, as in the examples here above, the verbs of the second group (-aago) give –iiɗo as in the following examples: The verb Ardaago (to lead) produces Ardiiɗo, Cewtaago (to surveil) produces Cewtiiɗo, Hoolaago (to trust) produces kooliiɗo, Raddaago (to compete) produces Daddiiɗo, Suuɗaago (to hide self) produces Cuɗiiɗo, lootaago (to wash self) produces lootiiɗo.

Table 2

Ardaago →Arɗo, ardangal, Ardiiɗo 2. Cewtaago → Sewto, Cewtiiɗo

3. Hoolaago → Hoolaare, hoolo, kooliiɗo 4. Raddaago → Raddo, Daddiiɗo

5. Suuɗaago → Cuɗiiɗo,

It is to be noted here that the verbs from the two groups, (-ugo) and (-aago) selected for illustration here above, even though at random, many are of active voice. This note is pertinent because, in some quarters, the verbs of the second group (-aago) are considered to be semi-active verbs (Arnott 1970:18, Kiro BEST: IJHAMS 2016:206).

Still dealing with verb derivational names, let us go into the third group (-eego), of which the verbs are of passive voice. However, the names that derived from the verbs may as well follow a different format from the two groups already treated, and the names here derived could not be agential as they stand as object of the action performed by the subject of the verb in the sentence. The names here are more of past participle of the verb and therefore, they could be seen as adjectives with –aaɗo as the suffix for all the names derived from the verbs of the third group (-eego).

Table 3

1. Yaafeego → Yaafuye, Jaafaaɗo 2. Tunndeego → Tunnda, Tunndaaɗo

3. Fukkineego → Pukkundi, Pukkinaaɗo 4. Hubeego → Hubahubaaru, Kubaaɗo

5. Menngeego → Menngo, Menngaaɗo 6. Manteego → Mantoore, Mantaaɗo

Let us consider the following derivational process to substantiate this argument. From Yaafeego (to be forgiven) derive the name Jaafaaɗo, Tunndeego (to be dressed) gives Tunndaaɗo, Fukkineego (to be laid) gives Pukkinaaɗo, Hubeego (to be stoned) gives Kubaaɗo, Menngeego (to be slapped) gives Menngaaɗo, Manteego (to be praised) gives Mantaaɗo.

It can be noted here that all the six verbs here used for illustration are of passive voice and all the names derived end with –aaɗo, without exception. This is not surprising being that the Fulfulde verbs of the third group are generally of the passive voice.

In some grammars, such as French grammar, the infinitive form of a verb can assume some nominal functions in the syntax. In this case, the infinitive form is taken as a substantive. Kiro, in (ZAJOLA2008 : 183), supports this argument when he says that: Quand le verbe est en sa forme infinitive, il est généralement pris pour un substantif. Il peut ainsi jouer le rôle du complément d’objet direct: Kabiru est un bon élève,il aime lire (When a verb is in its infinitive form, it is generally taken for a substantive. Thus it can play the role of a direct object : Kabiru is a good student, he loves to read).It should therefore be noted that the verb in its infinitive form is assimilated to the noun, as it assumes the functions of the latter rather than those of a verb. The functions of the name referred to here are the subject and the object.

Let us draw in summary the classification of derivational names based on the verbal group and what they imply. We need to point out that the names here classified are participial names describing actor, reflective object and passive object. We still follow the verbal grouping from –ugo, -aago and –eego.

-UGO → Pennuɗo (fennugo), Kaɓɓuɗo (haɓɓugo), Deenuɗo (reenugo), Ceeɗuɗo (seeɗugo), Basuɗo (wasugo), Booɓuɗo (wooɓugo), Jaruɗo (yarugo). These are participial names describing a person that did an action expressed by the related verb in a sentence. (see table 1)

-AAGO →Ardiiɗo (ardaago), Cewtiiɗo (sewtaago), kooliiɗo (hoolaago), Daddiiɗo (raddaago), Cuɗiiɗo (suuɗaago), Lootiiɗo (lootaago). These participial names refer to a person that does the action as expressed by the related verb. However, here the names are from verbs of both passive and active voices. Therefore, some of the names are reflexive as in the case of the two names (cuɗiiɗo, lootiiɗo). (see table 2)

–EEGO → Jaafaaɗo (yaafeego),Tunndaaɗo (tunndeego), Pukkinaaɗo (fukkineego) , Kubaaɗo (hubeego), Menngaaɗo (menngeego), Mantaaɗo (manteego). All these participial names refer to person that receives the effect of the action expressed by the related verb as performed by another actor. This is to say that these names are object in the sentences where they are found. (see table 3)

3. Conclusion  

The names here above, in various examples, serve as samples for those names that identify the beings or situations produced by the action of a verb in Fulfulde speech. We have also seen a number of participial names that have been classified as actors, reflexive and passive names. This can confidently support the argument that Fulfulde is a verbal base language as advocated by many linguists, as we can see in the reference page below.

References

Abu-Manga, Al’Amin. “The length and focus in the Fulfulde verbal system” Proceedings of 1^st-4^th international conference on Fulfulde language, literature and culture, 1991, Kano Centre for Study of Nigerian languages, Bayero University Kano, pp 1-11

Arnott, D. W. The Nominal and Verbal Systems of Fula. London : Oxford University Press, 1970. 

Greenberg, J.H. The African Languages and Literatures. Harlow Essex UK, 1963.

Kiro U. K. La catégorie verbale du temps dans l’actualisation du verbe : une étude comparative du Fulfulde et du français. M.A. Dissertation, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, Kaduna State, Nigeria, 2006. 

-------- Le complément d’objet direct : les caractéristiques et les occurrences et la nature dans la syntaxe de la langue française, Zaria Journal of Liberal Arts (ZAJOLA), Vol. 2, No. 2, September, 2008, ISSN :2141-3584, pp 178-183, 2008.

--------- Morphosyntactic study of verb: The case of Fulfulde, Best:International Journal of Humanities, Arts, Medicine and Sciences (BEST: IJHAMS), Vol:5, Issue:2, Feb.2017, JCC Impact Factor (2016): 1.9287, ISSN(P) 2348-0521, pp 203-208, 2017.

Mukoshy, Ibrahim Ahmad. “Review of nominal grades…” Proceedings of 1^st-4^th international conference on Fulfulde language, literature and culture, 1991, Kano Centre for Study of Nigerian languages, Bayero University Kano, pp 32-43.