A Study of Inflectional Morphology in the Hyam Language

Cite this article as: Abdulkadir, S., & Makama, R. (2026). A study of inflectional morphology in the Hyam language. Sokoto Journal of Linguistics and Communication Studies (SOJOLICS), 2(2), 117-128. https://doi.org/10.36349/sojolics.2026.v02i02.010

By

Suleiman ABDULKADIR

School of Basic and Remedial Studies, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria

sulekankara@gmail.com

+234(0)8032523942,

&

Rabiu MAKAMA

Department of English, School of Secondary Education (Languages),

Jigawa State College of Education, Gumel.

rabiumakama2015@gmail.com

+234(0)8063408738

Abstract

This study investigates the inflectional morphology of the Hyam language, which belongs to the Plateau subgroup of the Benue-Congo language family spoken in Jaba Local Government Area of Kaduna State, Nigeria. Inflectional morphology refers to the grammatical modification of words to express categories such as number, tense, aspect, person and agreement without changing their lexical meaning or grammatical class. The study adopts a descriptive qualitative research design and draws its data from native speakers of the Samban dialect through elicitation, interviews, participant observation, and recorded natural speech. A mixed methodology utilizing both primary and secondary sources was employed for comprehensive data gathering. The data are analysed within the framework of the Item-and-Arrangement model of morphology, which views words as combinations of meaningful morphemes arranged in systematic patterns. The analysis focuses on the identification of inflectional markers. The study contributes to the documentation of the Hyam language by providing a detailed account of the inflectional system of the Samban dialect. It also enriches existing scholarship on Plateau language morphology and offers valuable data for comparative linguistic research. The results reveal that Hyam exhibits a variety of affixation processes, including prefixation and suffixation, alongside modifications involving consonant substitution.

Keywords: Morphology, Prefixation, Suffixation, Hyam, Plateau languages.

1.0 Introduction

Each language possesses specific rules that dictate the structure and formation of its words. According to Chomsky (2000), language represents the innate ability of a native speaker to comprehend and construct grammatical sentences. He posits that sentences may be finite or infinite in quantity and are composed of a limited set of elements. Inflectional Morphology refers to the processes by which grammatical forms are created, modified, or transformed within a language. These processes elucidate how smaller meaningful units, termed morphemes, combine to create words that express grammatical or semantic relationships. This paper explores the inflectional morphology of the Hyam, focusing on prefixation, suffixation, as well as modification, including consonant substitution.

The Hyam language falls under the Niger-Congo family, specifically within the Benue-Congo branch, which encompasses the languages spoken in the central Plateau region. This grouping constitutes a notable linguistic category among the Plateau languages in Nigeria (Hayab, 2017:4). The Ham people, commonly known as ‘Jaba’, are the speakers of the Hyam language. Although they are referred to as ‘Jaba’ in both Hausa and the Nok dialect (termed JabanKetare), as well as in the Shamang dialect (called JabanSamban), the accurate identification of the group is Ham, with their language designated as Hyam (Blench, 2010:2). Currently, Hyam has roughly 300,000 native speakers, who communicate through seven dialects, including Samban (Shamang), as well as Nok, Yaat, Ankum, and Dzar (NPC, 2006). The predominant region for the Hyam language is the Jaba Local Government Area in Kaduna State, Nigeria, which covers an expanse of 531 km and is located in proximity to Jos in the Plateau State and Abuja, the nation’s capital. The administrative hub of this Local Government is situated in Kwoi, which has an estimated population of 155,973 (NPC, 2006). The Samban (Shamang) community is primarily concentrated in Samban village, recognized as one of the significant political wards within the Jaba Local Government Area of Kaduna State.

2.0 Literature Review

This section provides a review of some literature relevant to the research topic.

Sani (2019) undertakes a comprehensive analysis of the processes involved in the pluralisation of nouns within the Karekare language, which contributes valuable insights to the understanding of morphological variations in less commonly studied languages. The research meticulously identifies a range of suffixes, including but not limited to -no, -wai, -mai, -yo, -yin, -chin and -cai, that are integral to the formation of plural nouns in Karekare. These morphological elements are not merely affixed to their respective noun bases; rather, they play a crucial role in transforming singular nouns into their plural forms, thus illuminating the grammatical structure and complexities of noun usage within this language. This work by Sani exhibits a direct relevance to the current research endeavour, as both studies grapple with the mechanics of noun pluralisation but do so within the confines of different linguistic contexts. While Sani’s study is concentrated on Karekare, the present investigation explores analogous themes within another language landscape, allowing for a broader comparative analysis of noun pluralisation mechanisms across different linguistic frameworks. 

Ado and Bidin (2017) examine morphological intricacies associated with noun formation processes in the Iguta language. Their research delves specifically into the processes of suffixation and prefixation as critical mechanisms through which nouns are inflected. The findings from their analysis substantiate the role of both suffixation and prefixation in the inflection of nouns, providing a better understanding of how these morphological processes operate to enhance the linguistic richness and flexibility of the Iguta language. Through this comparative lens, a deeper understanding of the pluralisation phenomenon can emerge, reinforcing the significance of morphological studies in the exploration of diverse languages.

Shada (2017) investigates the mechanisms of pluralisation within the Ikale dialect of Yoruba, focusing on processes such as compounding, deletion, vowel lengthening, and affixation. The findings indicate that affixation and compounding serve as the most effective methods for indicating plural forms. This research is directly relevant to the current study, as both explore the formation of plurals. However, while Shada’s work emphasises the Ikale dialect, the present investigation will focus on the Hyam plural forms of Samban.

Aliyu (2015) conducts an in-depth analysis of the morphological processes inherent to the Gbani language, a lesser-studied member of the expansive family of Afro-Asiatic languages. The study meticulously explores how Gbani employs distinct morphological strategies to indicate plurality, particularly focusing on the intriguing substitution patterns that arise with similar nouns. Specifically, it is observed that nouns commencing with vowel sounds typically undergo a substitution process, wherein they are suffixed with the plural morpheme ‘e’. Conversely, nouns that initiate with consonant sounds are pluralised by attaching the morpheme ‘o’. This nuanced differentiation not only highlights the phonological characteristics of the language but also exemplifies broader morphological principles that govern noun inflection. The relevance of Aliyu’s research to the present study cannot be overstated. It provides critical insights into the morphological mechanisms utilised in generating plural forms within the JabanSamban dialect, which distinct from Gbani, shares a foundational reliance on specific inflectional prefixes. Both studies converge on the analysis of prefixation as a morphological process, exploring its role in the inflection of nouns. However, a significant divergence lies in the morphological strategies employed: while Gbaniprioritises vowel-consonant substitutions, the JabanSambandialect demonstrates an alternative approach that predominantly utilises consonant substitutions in its plural formation processes. This comparative perspective is crucial, as it enriches our understanding of the morphological diversity within these languages.

Bahago (2010) conducts an extensive investigation into the morphological features of the Koro language, another language belonging to the Niger-Congo family. In this scholarly endeavour, Bahago elucidates that Koro employs a distinctive method of pluralisation through the addition of various prefixes to root words. These prefixes include a range of phonetic elements such as (a-,ba-, bo-, e-, E-, u-, gha-, ghe-, gho,), a morphological strategy that necessitates the removal of certain syllables within the root word prior to the application of the plural markers. This finding underscores the intricate nature of morphological operations in the Koro language and reveals an important aspect of its grammatical structure. While both Bahago’s and present studies delineate comparable themes concerning the pluralisation of nouns, they are marked by noteworthy methodological difference, contextual settings and linguistic frameworks. Through their respective analysis, they contribute to a broader discourse on morphological processes, shedding light on the remarkable diversity and complexity that characterises the inflectional systems across these different languages. Thus, the insights gained from both studies are invaluable, providing a comparative backdrop against which the pluralisation mechanisms in the JabanSamban dialect can be further elucidated and understood.

Oladipo (2010) focuses on various strategies employed in the formation of plural nouns within the Yoruba language. The research meticulously examines and articulates the distinct methodologies utilised by Yoruba speakers to signify plurality in their linguistic expressions. A significant finding of the study is the observation that the Yoruba language does not demonstrate agreement in the same manner as many other languages, wherein a clear grammatical concord exists between subjects and their respective verbs or between nouns and adjectives. As a result, what constitutes a syntactically marked plural in Yoruba is effectively instantiated through a mechanism known as plural marking. In this context, plural marking is characterised by the employment of modifier morphemes rather than the utilisation of distinct words specifically designed to indicate pluralities, which are commonly known as ‘plural words.’ Oladipo’s research further delineates that within the framework of Yoruba, a noun phrase (NP) possesses the flexibility to be interpreted as either singular or plural, depending on the specific discourse context in which it is situated. To elucidate this phenomenon, the study proposes a gerund number analysis, which aims to provide a theoretical explanation for the varying interpretations of noun phrases within different conversational settings. Moreover, the research identifies four distinct categories of plural words in the Yoruba language. The first category includes owon, which functions as a third-person pronoun and imparts a plural interpretation to the nouns it accompanies. The second category comprises the term pupu, which translates to ‘many’ and is employed to denote multiplicity. The third category features the word won, which serves to mark demonstrations in the plural form. Finally, the fourth class is comprised of copied modifiers, which contribute to the pluralisation of nouns through a process of reduplication. In drawing comparisons with other linguistic frameworks, the study explores the similarities and differences in the modalities employed in pluralising words, particularly contrasting the Yoruba language with the Hyam language (JabanSambandialect). While both linguistic systems exhibit certain commonalities in how they derive plural forms from lexical roots, the research emphasises that they diverge in their respective strategies for forming plural nouns. Additionally, the study also critically evaluates the diverse settings and methodologies utilised in the analysis, thereby contributing to a deeper understanding of the linguistic phenomena associated with plurality in Yoruba and its juxtaposition with other languages. Through these insights, Oladipo’s work enriches the academic discourse surrounding Yoruba language studies and pluralisation strategies across different linguistic contexts. These works are related to the present study as they discussed how words are used to explore plurality in their linguistic expressions through affixation processes: prefixation and suffixation. But differ in terms of the methodology, the dialect used as well as the setting of the study.

Despite these contributions, there remains a noticeable gap in the literature concerning the inflectional morphology of the Hyam language. Existing studies have paid relatively little attention to the identification, description, and analysis of inflectional processes in Hyam. Furthermore, no comprehensive study appears to have provided a detailed account of the forms, functions, and distribution of inflectional markers across samban dialects of Hyam. This lack of detailed documentation limits scholarly understanding of the language's grammatical system and constrains comparative analyses involving other Plateau languages. The present study therefore seeks to fill this gap by providing a systematic investigation of inflectional morphology in the Hyam language. By identifying and analysing its inflectional processes, the study contributes to the documentation of an under-researched Nigerian language and enriches the broader literature on Plateau language morphology and African linguistics.

3.0 Methodology

The present studyemploys a descriptive qualitative research design, gathering data from native speakers of the sambandialect across four age groups: 15 – 25, 26 – 35, 36 – 45, 46 and above. The methods employed for data collection encompass elicitation techniques, interviews, participant observation and the recordingof natural speech to analyse specific linguistic phenomena within a defined population. A cohort of twenty participants, comprising twelve males and eight females, was selected to engage in structured interviews. These interviews were centered on a predetermined wordlist aimed at investigating the inflectional patterns in Hyam.

4.0 Theoretical Framework

This study is anchored on Morphological Theory; particularly the Item-and-Arrangement (IA) model proposed by Bloomfield (1933) and further developed by Hockett (1954). The model provides a systematic approach for identifying and analysing inflectional morphemes in Hyam. It enables the researcher to examine how grammatical information is encoded through morphological markers and how these markers interact with lexical roots to produce meaningful linguistic forms.

5.0 Data Presentation and Analysis

This study aims to examine samples and analyse the phenomenon of pluralisation in Hyam using prefixation, suffixation and consonant substitution. In the analysis, low tone is represented with a grave accent (ˋ)whereas high tone remains unmarked.

5.1 Prefixation

In the Hyam language, several prefixes can be identified to inflect nouns:

1) ki- Prefix

In the Hyam, the prefix ki- serves as an inflectional morpheme that is affixed to the root of a word to modify its grammatical properties. This is illustrated in the following example:

Prefix Base Plural Form

a. ki- + tola → kitòla

 shirt shirts

b. ki- + badak → kibàdak

 shoe shoes

c. ki- + lulu → kiluulu

 threat threats

In examples (1a& b) above, it is demonstrated that the prefix ki-, serves to pluralise the root word when added. Consequently, the high tone of the initial syllable in the base form is altered to a low tone in the pluralisation process. Conversely, in example (1c), the short vowel at the beginning of the base word transitions to a long vowel in its pluralised version, as illustrated in the subsequent examples:

2)bo-Prefix

The bo-prefix in Hyam, as illustrated in the subsequent examples, functions as an inflectional affix. This morpheme does not generate a new word; instead, it serves to pluralise the word it modifies, as demonstrated in the examples provided.

Prefix Base Plural Form

a. bo- + jugap → bojùgap

 monkey monkeys

b. bo- + jigam → bojìgam

 rabit rabits

c. bo- + nyu → bonyuu

 hen hens

In instances (2a& b), the initial syllable of the singular form undergoes a tonal shift from high to low, while in (2c), the short vowel transitions from a short to a long form as the word changes from its root form to its plural variant.

3) ke- Prefix

In the Samban dialect ofHyam, certain singular nouns also create their plural forms by incorporating the ke- prefix.

Prefix Base Plural Form

a. ke- + beya → kebèya

 paper papers

b. ke- + tuna → ketùna

 black smith black smiths

c. ke- + djom → kedjòm

 store stores

The aforementioned examples, (3a-d) illustrate that the root morphemes in the initial syllable exhibit a high tonalquality. Upon the addition of the ke- prefix to form the plural, these high tones transition to a low tone.

4) kin- Prefix

The kin- prefix in Hyamdemonstrates the capability to create plural forms from certain singular nouns; examples of such formations include:

Prefix Base Plural Form

a. kin- + nep → kinnèp

 bird birds

b. kin- + nangon → kinnàngon

 tiger tigers

c. kin- + vini → kinvìni

 knee knees

In examples (4a-c), the kin-prefix is affixed to the singular form to create plural nouns. This addition also results in a tonalshift from a high pitch to a low pitch in the initial syllable of the root word when deriving the plural forms.

5)mo- Prefix

In the Hyam, the prefix mo- functions as an inflectional bound morpheme indicating plurality. The following examples illustrate this principle:

Prefix Base Plural Form

a. mo- + hyas → moohyas

 buffalo buffalos

b. mo- + kpob → mookpob

 navel navels

c. mo- + nangwan → monàngwan

 leopard leopards

Theprefixmo- in the Hyam serves a function in the inflection of nouns, specifically to denote the plural form. The aforementioned examples illustrate that the application of the mo-prefix modifies the respective words, effectively pluralising them within the Hyam linguistic structure without altering their grammatical category. Observations from examples (5a & b) indicate a transformation in vowel length, specifically to a prolonged vowel sound. Furthermore, in example (5c), there is a tonal shift from a high to a low tone in the initial syllable of the root words when they are converted to their plural variants.

6) ci- Prefix 

This morpheme is a bound element that indicates plurality within the language being analysed. As an inflectional morpheme, it serves the function of creating plural forms. The following examples illustrate this point:

Prefix Base Plural Form

a. ci- + tam → citam

 cheek cheeks

b. ci- + ton → citon

 eye eyes

The aforementioned examples lack productivity, serving only as linguistic anomalies. Consequently, the prefix ci- is affixed to the singular form to create the plural. Nevertheless, the addition of this prefix morpheme does not alter the tonal quality, as both forms retain a high tone.

5.2 Suffixation

Within the context of this study, suffixationis utilized to inflect nouns in the Hyam language.

7)-ya Inflectional Suffix

The morpheme –yaservesas a suffix in Hyam, facilitating the formation of words within the same grammatical category. This morpheme specifically indicates plurality; for example:

Base Suffix Plural Form

a. mek + -ya → mekya

 year years

b. fike + -ya → fikeya

 female females

c. gàghain + -ya → gàghainya

 story stories

Based on the examples above (8a & b), it is observed that the high tone is consistently maintained in both singular and plural constructions. However, in the case of (8c), the initial syllable of the root word undergoes a tonal alteration from high to low in its derived form.

8) -yi Inflectional Suffix

The suffix -yiin Hyam, illustrated by the examples below, serves as an inflectional affix within the language. This affix does not generate new words; instead, it functions to pluralise existing terms, as demonstrated in the subsequent examples.

Base Suffix Plural Form

a. faz + -yi → fàzyi

 comb combs

b. kpit + -yi → kpityi

 cloth clothes

c. nì + -yi → niyi

 looking/seeing looking/seeing

In the examplesabove, a modification occurs in the vowel in (9a), wherein the long vowel transitions to a short vowel as the word shifts from singular to plural. Conversely, in (9c), the short vowel present in the root word transformed into a long vowel during the formation of the derived plural.

9) -bo Inflectional Suffix

The suffix –bo, functioning as an inflectional affix, is utilized in Hyam to indicate plurality, as shown in the examples provided below.

Base Suffix Plural Form

a. thom + -bo → thombo

 expel expels

b. fìni + -bo → finìbo

 my ours

In the above examples, the suffix -bo is attached to singulars nouns to form the plurals. In (10a), the tone remains high in both singular and plural forms, while in (10b), the last syllable of the root word changes from high to low tone in the formation of the plural forms.

5.3 Modification in the Hyam Language

Modification refers to the process that alters the structure of a root to inflect a noun. This process encompasses elements such as consonant substitutionwithin the Hyamlanguage.

5.3.1 Consonant Substitution

In the analysis and discussions held on the available data, some nouns form their plural by changing mostly the initial consonant of the singular form according to its morphological or syntactic environment. Consider the examples below:

10) Substitute Consonant Singular form Plural form and Gloss

 a. r + lum → rum

farm farms

b. r + lik → rik

room rooms

c. n + mu → nu

 mouse mice

d. z + bok → zok

 hand hands

e. th + sut → thut

 cap caps

f. s + far → sar

count counts

g. s + cit → sit

death deaths

h. gy + dar → gyar

grag grags

i. y + wut → yut

exit exits

In the preceding examples, the formation of plurality is achieved by alternating the consonant ‘l’ with ‘r’. Nevertheless, the overall tonal quality remains constant, as there is no variation in the number of syllables.

6.0 Discussion of Findings

One of the major findings of the study is that the Hyam language possesses a productive system of number marking. The data indicate that singular and plural distinctions are expressed through morphological modifications attached to nominal roots. In several instances, plural forms are derived through the addition of affixes, while some nouns exhibitstem alternations and phonological adjustments when pluralized.

This finding supports the observation of Williamson and Blench (2000) that many Plateau languages employ morphological strategies to distinguish singular and plural forms. The existence of regular plural markers in Hyam demonstrates that number is an important grammatical category within the language. Furthermore, the variation observed in plural formation suggests that noun inflection in Hyam may involve both morphological and phonological processes operating simultaneously.

7.0 Conclusion

The study presents a detailed analysis of the various inflectional morphemes present in the Hyam language. The results reveal three primary methods of inflection utilised within this linguistic framework: prefixation, suffixation and consonant substitution. Notably, the process of prefixation is employed to transform plural nouns from their singular forms, particularly within the Samban (shamang) dialect of the Hyam language. The research indicates that prefixes represent the most prevalent affix in the formation of plural nouns from singular ones in this dialect. Specifically, the prefix morphemes examined include ki-, bo-, ke-, kin-, mo-, and ci-, which attach to base nouns. Likewise, suffixes –ya, -yi, and –bo serve the purpose of inflecting singular nouns. Additionally, consonant substitution is identified as another inflectional method, where alterations occur in the initial phonetic sequence of the word to effect this transformation. Examples of such substitutions include the replacement of ‘l’ with ‘r’, ‘b’ with ‘z’, ‘m’ with ‘n’, ‘s’ with ‘th’, ‘f’ with ‘s’, ‘c’ with ‘s’, ‘d’ with ‘gy’, and ‘w’ with ‘y’.

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