Article Citation: Ebere R. Adigbuo (2019). Africa and the Two World Wars: Involvement and Impact. DEGEL: The Journal of the Faculty of Arts and Islamic Studies, Vol. 17, No. 2. ISSN 0794-9316
AFRICA AND THE TWO WORLD WARS: INVOLVEMENT AND IMPACT
By
Ebere
R. Adigbuo
Abstract
Africa has for years been seen as a continent without
history. Some analysts justify the European conquest and subjugation of
Africans as a civilizing mission, the euphemism for marked interests. Nations
over the years have protected their interests through diplomatic mechanisms and
the use of force, particularly where diplomacy is ineffective. The World War I
and II are no exceptions; these wars were fought to protect the significant
interests of the belligerents. But why was Africa dragged into two global wars?
What are the socio-political impacts of these wars on Africa? Resting on
applied research method, that relies primarily on secondary sources, this study
examines the involvement and impact of these global wars on Africa.
Introduction
During the 20th Century, the world was twice
drawn into unprecedented wars of global character known as the First and Second
World Wars. These conflicts have since been considered among the most major
events in the contemporary history of mankind since 1900. Notable among the
impacts of the wars on world history include the restructuring of the global
political map as well as the establishment and proliferation of international
organizations charged with issues of global peace and security. However, while
the wars raged, most of Africa merely existed as colonial possessions of
European powers. As such, there has been the tendency to neglect Africa’s
involvement in the world wars, thereby ignoring the impacts of the wars for
Africa’s socio-economic and political development.
This paper therefore seeks to examine the two world wars of
the 20th century with focus on the nature of Africa’s involvement
alongside the impact of the global conflicts on socio-economic and political
developments in Africa. The paper does not however concern itself with
discussing the trajectories of the war, except that which is considered
relevant for understanding the place of Africa in contemporary international
relations since the 20th Century. It is on this note that the paper
is divided into four sections, starting with this introduction. The second
section assesses the First World War in relation to Africa’s involvement
alongside impacts of the war for the continent; the third part of the paper
focuses on Africa’s involvement as well as the impacts of the Second World War
on the continent. The fourth and final section is the conclusion.
The First World War
Background
The First World War which is also known as the Great War,
lasted between 1914 and 1918, and has been described as an overwhelming
disaster from which everything else in the twentieth century stemmed.[1]
While the above statement may be accused of over-generalisation, it however
retains some amount of validity especially with regards to events relating to
international relations. Notable among the outcomes of the war include: the
dissolution of four empires, weakening of the economic and political base of
surviving empires, as well as a peace settlements which set the world on the
path for another World War. One may therefore wonder why such an international
conflict had erupted at the time it did.
Indeed, several factors have over the years been linked to
the outbreak of the First World War. However, in this paper the traditional
levels of analysis in International Relations are adopted in explaining the
outbreak of the war. These include the individual, state and international
levels of analysis. At the individual level, Stoessinger demonstrates that
Emperors and statesmen on all sides of the war had become too weak to control
an already tensed situation in Europe following the assassination of Archduke
Franz Ferdinand; this therefore resulted in the dominance of military planners
in decision making.[2]Stoessinger
stresses that given the unrelenting rigidity of military schedules and
timetables on all sides, the Great War had become inevitable. In the same vein,
at the domestic level, issues such as aggressive German policies, nationalism
as well as a positive perception of warfare across European states, may be
considered as factors that explain the outbreak of the war. At the international
level of analysis, the alliance system prevalent in Europe at the time,
unification of German, unification of Italy as well as arms race may usefully
provide explanation for the outbreak of the international conflict.
Nevertheless, details of the causes of the First World War
do not immediately concern this paper. Instead, what is important to note is
that the war which lasted for four years, three months and one week, was of
huge significance to contemporary international relations. After the war, new
nation-states emerged in Europe; the United States became a great power;
communism was established in the Soviet Union; Germany was humiliated and made
to bear the guilt for the war; the stage was thus set for another global
conflict. Nonetheless, from these enumerated consequences of the First World
War, no mention is made of Africa. Can we therefore assume that Africa does not
have a place in the history of the First World War? It is in finding answer to
this question that it becomes necessary to consider the extent to which Africa
was involved in the Great War.
Nature of Involvement
Indeed, contrary to conventional knowledge which considers
Europe as the major theatre of the First World War, it is important to note
that the war actually began and ended in Africa; moreover, it was in Africa
that the war was fought for its longest period.[3]
Historical accounts of the war reveal that it was an African, Alhaji Grunshi of
the West African Frontier Force (WAFF), who fired the first shot by British
troops during WWI, when Britain and France invaded German Togoland on August 7,
1914.[4]More
so, after the armistice which officially ended the world war on November 11,
1918, hostilities continued in Africa where news of the armistice did not
arrive in time. The war therefore lingered till November 25, 1918 in
Tanganyika, present day Tanzania, when Germany’s last infantry column
surrendered to British forces.
An interesting aspect of Africa’s involvement in WWI is the
fact that Africans from many countries served in both sides of the conflict in
support of their respective colonial authorities. The war in Africa therefore
meant that Africans had to fight against themselves at the prompting of the
colonialists. Among the main contributing countries to the war included Nigeria,
French West Africa, South Africa, Zimbabwe, Sierra Leone, Uganda, The Gambia,
Malawi, Kenya and Ghana. France enlisted a total of about 200,000 Africans to
fight on her side against the Germans, while Britain enlisted about 390,000 men
from Kenya, Uganda and Nyasaland who served not only as combatant soldiers, but
also as carriers and auxiliary troops.[5]
In Nigeria, British colonial authorities in 1917 had to conscript 4,000
auxiliary troops every year to help combatant soldiers prosecute the war.[6]
In terms of the auxiliary roles played by Africans during
the war, Kathleen Bomani claims that for every soldier, French, German and
British troops used at least four native carriers, including women and
children, whose duties were to convey food supplies, arms and even artillery.
These auxiliary conscripts also cooked, scrubbed and tended to the needs of the
soldiers and in several cases often died of exhaustion, malnutrition and
disease.[7]Bomani
furthers that of the 105,000 deaths recorded among British forces in East
Africa, 90% were auxiliary conscripts with Kenya alone losing about 45,000
persons in the East Africa campaign.[8]
Historical reports of the war claim that over a million people died in East
Africa alone, as a result of direct consequences of the war.[9]
Crowder points out that even the slave trade at its height, did not involve on
an annual basis as many as one-tenth of the total number of Africans that were
enlisted to participate in the First World War.[10]
Thus, in view of Africa’s actual involvement in the First
World War, the point to stress is that rather than being mere onlookers,
isolated from the events of WWI, Africans were indeed actively involved in the
global conflict, both in Europe and on African soil. African theatres of the
First World War include: Morocco where the Zaian War was fought between France
and a confederation of Berber tribes between 1914 and 1921. Also, there was
fighting in Cyrenaica (in present day Libya), as well as an Anglo-Egyptian
expedition in Darfur. The war also raged in Togoland, German Kamerun (now spelt
as Cameroun), Namibia, Angola as well as Somaliland. The war was perhaps
longest in East Africa where fighting took place in present day Tanzania,
Uganda, Kenya, Malawi and Zambia.
However, the point must be stressed that while the rest of
the world, particularly Europe, had been enthusiastic about the war, Africans
did not exhibit such eagerness to participate in the war. There are reports of
young Africans who deserted, mutilated themselves, and/or practiced “flight
into the bush” or into neighbouring colonies in order to escape forced
conscription.[11]
More so, it is pertinent to note that there was no collective African position
during the war, while during the peace settlements that followed the end of the
war, Africa (with the exception of Liberia) was also not represented.
Non-representation at the Paris Peace Conference does not however suggest that
the war did not hold some lasting implications for Africa’s socio-economic and
political development as would be examined in the next section.
Impact on Social and Economic
Developments
World War I impacted immensely on social, economic and
political developments in Africa. Notable among the impacts of the war on
social developments in Africa is the disruption of social relationships across
the continent. War, as a significant social phenomenon, is a powerful agent of
change in societies. Thus, the First World War in colonial Africa does not
deviate from this historical standard. Returnees from the Great War, regardless
of their initial social status, attained new levels of enhanced respectability
and prestige as people who had gone far and wide and had reached the ends of
the world while performing heroic acts. They therefore assumed new roles, some
of which were alien to the social configuration of colonial Africa before the
war, including such roles as: sanitary masters, catechists, clerks, messengers,
policemen, customs officers, as well as radio or gramophone operators.[12]
The WWI veterans also introduced new dressing habits and instituted other
changes similar to what was obtainable in Europe, thereby launching the path
for bringing Africa to ‘global modernity’.[13]
In the same vein, WWI had also impacted heavily on economic
developments in Africa. For instance, as a result of the war, Germany lost its
trading position in Africa. This therefore eventuated in the development of
French and British enterprise across virtually all of Africa, having eliminated
the German competition. It is important to note that prior to the outbreak of
the war in 1914, Germany played very prominent roles in trade across Africa,
not only within her colonies but also in British and French colonies. She had
therefore lost such control and influence over the continent, having been
defeated at the war.
Furthermore, just as WWI drew attention to the military
potential of African colonies, it as well drew attention to the economic
potentials of the colonies. For instance, prior to the outbreak of the war in
1914, France remarkably neglected trade with those of her African colonies
acquired during the ‘scramble for Africa’ in the 19th Century.[14]
However, with the outbreak of the war, the French government set up a
commission in September 1914 to consider trade between France and her African
colonies. The commission was succeeded in November 1915 by another agency
charged with the responsibility of coordinating the supply of colonial products
while in December 1916 colonial governors were asked to encourage production of
all foodstuffs which could be shipped to France.[15]
After the war, the French government redefined their perception of their
African colonies as inexhaustible reservoirs of raw materials with which France
would break free from dependence on foreign imports.[16]
More so, in order to generate sufficient funds to prosecute
the war, colonial authorities in Africa increased taxation, while some
restrictive trading regulations such as the imposition of limited numbers of
licenses to ships as well as the imposition of taxes for export commodities, were
instituted.[17]This
meant at least a temporary modification to Africa’s laissez-faire economic
development which prevailed until the outbreak of the Great War. It is also
important to note that war conditions were to encourage the ever larger
expatriate shipping and commercial companies (such as the British shippers,
Elder Dempster; the trading companies, Swanzy and Millers; and the Ashanti Gold
Mining Company) to dominate further the international trade in cash crops and
mining— at the expense of smaller, often African producers.[18]
Impact on Political developments
Aside socio-economic developments that have been discussed
above, the First World War also gave rise to crucial changes in Africa’s
political development. To start with, it is important to note that at the peace
settlements that followed the war, Germany was stripped off her African
colonies, which were divided up among the victors under the mandate system.
While European powers had acceded to the principle of self-determination in
Europe, they however failed to grant such concessions to Africans. Thus, it
could be stressed that one of the political developments in Africa emanating
from the outbreak of WWI was the consolidation of imperialism in Africa.
Notwithstanding, it is also important to note that some
African elites had supported the conscription of Africans into the war, hoping
that Africa’s involvement would lead to political concessions after the war.
However, whether or not they were satisfied with the sort of political
developments that occurred during and after the war remains in the realm of
analysis. Among the remarkable political developments that were occasioned by
the war include the exemption from the system of summary native jurisdiction,
for all army volunteers, their fathers, and migrant workers who spent more than
a year in France. Parliamentary bills emerged that declared the right of all
native soldiers to citizenship. Nonetheless, it should be noted that while some
of these bills were never signed into law, it had indeed generated some degree
of consciousness among the natives as to the possibility of emancipation in the
near future.
According to Michael Crowder, even though colonial powers
had firmly re-established control over their African colonial possessions after
the First World War, “a chink had been seen in their armour and the white man
had been seen to have an Achilles’ heel.”[19] Put
differently, as a result of the war, African soldiers discovered the humanity
and weaknesses of the white man who had earlier been regarded as superman.
Thus, upon returning to Africa after the war, WWI veterans began to spread new
views about the white man thereby giving impetus for resistance against
colonial administration after the war. Nevertheless, while the First World War
had led to dramatic changes in Africa’s socio-economic and political
development, it was indeed the Second World War (as would be examined below)
which consolidated such changes, eventually leading to Africa’s political
independence.
Africa and the Second World War
Background
The Second World War is unarguably the most destructive
conflict in the modern world even after over seven decades of its end. The war
lasted between 1939 and 1945, pitting the Allied powers against the Axis
powers. Germany, Japan, and Italy fought on one side against Great Britain,
France, United States, and later the Soviet Union. Several other countries
participated in the war but essentially had to queue behind any of the two
blocs involved in the conflict. The war led to the death of an estimated 72
million persons around the world, though exact figures are hard to come by.
Using the levels of analysis in international relations, the
war could be said to have been caused at the international level by the manner
in which the First World War was settled, alongside the failure of the League
of Nations to maintain international peace in the face of hostilities among its
members. At the domestic level, the rise of Nazism in Germany, Fascism in
Italy, and Bolshevism in the Soviet Union, are among domestic policies that are
considered to have contributed to the outbreak of the war. Finally, at the
individual level of analysis, the role and personal idiosyncrasies of such
leaders as Adolf Hitler, Benito Mussolini, Emperor Hideki, Winston Churchill
and Joseph Stalin become necessary.
Nature of Involvement
Like the First World War, Africa was once again a major
theatre of action during the Second World War, even on a much larger scale than
during the First. In fact, WWII in Africa began as early as 1935 when Italy
occupied the Horn of Africa. It is however noteworthy that unlike the First
when there was actual fighting in virtually all African sub-regions, fighting
in WWII was limited to North Africa and the Horn of Africa. Nevertheless, this
does not suggest that it was only Africans from within these two regions that
participated in the war. Historical records show that shortly after the
outbreak of the war, some 80,000 African troops had been shipped from French
Africa to Europe to fight against the Germans in Europe.[20]
Suffice to recall that the First World War had already given proof of the
efficiency of African soldiers, especially the Senegalese infantrymen who
acquired the reputation as coloured men who engaged themselves in the affairs
of white men.[21]
By 1940, French West Africa had already supplied 127,320
infantrymen, French Equatorial Africa 15,500, and Madagascar 34,000.[22]
The main achievements of African troops fighting on the Allied side include the
defeat of the Axis powers at El-Alamein in 1943, liberation of Corsica in 1943,
entry into Rome in 1944 as well the war in Provence in 1944.[23]
It is also important to note that African soldiers had also fought on the side
of the Axis powers in spite Hitler’s position that Africans were not to meddle
in European affairs. Italy having already asserted itself as a colonial power
in East Africa, mobilized 200,000 African soldiers to join the war.[24]
Furthermore, aside the contribution of African personnel to
WWII, it is important to note that Africa had also provided a support base for
the Allies. For example, in 1942 alone, a total of 2,994 aircrafts that were
active in the prosecution of the war, used the N’Djamena International Airport
which provided a strategic advantage for the Allies against the Axis powers.[25]
It is also important to note that it was in Africa (precisely at Algiers) that
a new French government was formed in 1943, since Germany occupied France at
the time. Therefore, the point to stress is that Africa played an active role
during the Second World War in terms of personnel and geostrategic support.
Nonetheless, having participated actively in the war, it again follows that the
war should have left in its trail a range of consequences for Africa. The next
section therefore assesses the social and economic dimensions of the impacts of
the Second War on Africa.
Impact on Socio-Economic Developments
As a result of the Second World War, French authorities
conferred citizenship on Africans within French colonies. Consequently, these
acculturated Africans, living in cities in Senegal, Ivory Coast, Guinea, among
others, no longer had to submit themselves to discriminatory policies; they
were treated as French citizens and had access to all facilities regardless of
such signs as: ‘Africans Only’, ‘Europeans Only’, or ‘Africans and Dogs Not
Allowed.’[26]
It is however important to note that these reforms did not apply to all
Africans especially within British colonies. As such, it cannot be
categorically assumed that the Second World War entirely erased racial
discrimination in Africa. The war however contributed towards the emancipation
of Africa in no small way.
Also, as a result of the war, the idea of equating Africans
with children had been destroyed. This had resulted from wartime experiences
where African soldiers in the battlefield revealed themselves to be as brave,
courageous and intelligent as their white counterparts. As such, the image of
Africans was pulled up from equation with monkeys, dogs and children, to a
position of possessing a common humanity with the white man. On the other hand,
the Second World War destroyed the myth of European invincibility.[27]
During the war, African soldiers had once again seen the weaknesses of the
white man in the battlefield. They had also seen white men fight against each
other such that upon returning to Africa, the remaining image of the white man
as superman or angel was totally destroyed.
In the same vein, while the First World War had uplifted the
social horizon of ex-servicemen, the Second World War on its own did not only
broaden the horizon of ex-servicemen but those left behind as well. During the
war, individual Africans had begun to listen to the radio. They therefore
followed live reports relating to the prosecution of the war, commenting on its
trends and deciding whether to be pro-German or pro-Britain in their
conversations. By closely monitoring events in Europe during the war through
the mass media, Africans began to develop interest in world affairs such that
their vision of human possibilities began to broaden.[28] By
the end of the war therefore, Africans had already become aware of their rights
and as such were ready to demand independence from colonial authorities.
Another major social development associated with the Second
War in Africa is the development of the education sector in Africa. The Elliot
Commission, for instance in 1945, recommended the establishment of university
colleges in Nigeria and the Gold Coast.[29]
Suffice to note that it was after the war that virtually all the major
universities in black Africa were established. Many of them were established as
soon as the war ended as part of responses to the new developmental imperative
in colonial policy. Noteworthy examples include: Yaba College of Technology
which was established in 1947, the University of Ghana established in 1948,
University of Ibadan (1948), University of Kinshasa (1954), among others.
In addition, urbanisation may be considered as another
impact of WWII on Africa’s social development. Crowder points out that when
Britain lost her colonies in the Far East, attention was shifted to Africa
where such cities as Freetown, Dakar, Port Harcourt, Leopoldville, Kano and
N’Djamena among others, which became staging posts for the campaigns in North
Africa. In order to construct such relevant facilities for the prosecution of
the war as airports, seaports, dock and factories, workers were required,
thereby leading to a boost in the number of inhabitants. A typical example of
such a trend is Leopoldville where population had multiplied from 40,000 in
1939 to 110,000 by the end of the war in 1945.[30]
As regards economic developments in Africa which were
initiated by the Second World War, the incorporation of Africa into world’s
capitalist economy becomes insightful. As a result of the war, there was a
rising demand for African agricultural products in Europe. However, the
increase in demand for African produce did not reflect on the price of such
commodities. This was because prices were strictly controlled by colonial
authorities who retained the difference between the prices paid to the
producers and that obtained at the international market.[31] It
was at this stage therefore that Africans began to develop the culture of being
producers of primary products in return for Europe’s finished goods. The war
had thus laid the foundation for Africa’s dependence on Europe.
Impact of the war on Political
Development
As already noted in this paper, WWII had affected virtually
every aspect of the African society. However, while the First World War had
altered the world’s political map including the map of Africa, the Second World
War did not lead to any major changes in the map of Africa. Even the United
States and the Soviet Union which emerged as the world’s superpowers at the end
of the war, did not make any long-term colonial acquisitions in Africa. Indeed,
political relationship in colonial Africa had remained largely unchanged in the
years that immediately followed the end of WWII. That notwithstanding, Crowder
remarks that the war shattered colonial calm in Africa as France and Belgium
(which were colonial powers at the time) were overrun by Germany, while the
allies dispossessed Italy of her colonies.[32]
Only Spain and Portugal emerged from the war relatively untouched.
Nevertheless, the war has repeatedly been associated with
the decolonization of Africa. According to Michael Crowder, whereas the war did
not necessarily lead to independence in Africa, it brought about demonstrable
changes in the attitudes of the colonial powers towards their colonies,
alongside corresponding changes in the attitudes of the colonial elites towards
their colonial powers.[33]
It was this situation therefore that culminated in the decolonization of
Africa. One major factor that explains such changes in attitudes toward
colonialism in Africa is the fact that after the war, the world’s new
superpowers, USA and USSR, were hostile to the continued existence of European
colonial empires. The former’s hostility to colonialism was earlier shown in
the Atlantic Charter which preceded America’s involvement in WWII
The Atlantic Charter was signed between the United States
and Britain. The Charter affirmed the ‘right of all people to choose the form
of government in which they will live.’ At the end of the war however, Winston
Churchill, British Prime Minister claimed that the principles enshrined in the
Charter did not necessarily apply to Africa. In the same vein, France
maintained that the future of its African territories was not self-government
but rather greater political freedom within the framework of a ‘greater
France’. Thus, colonialism in Africa persisted given the failure of the
Atlantic Charter to provide the framework for Africa’s independence. However,
the attention of the world, particularly the two newly emergent superpowers,
had been drawn to the nature of colonialism. Consequently, in the events that
followed, British and French authorities introduced a range of reforms targeted
at presenting colonialism in good lights.
Meanwhile, the United Nations had as well transformed the
perception of empire with the establishment of the Trusteeship Council which
provided a forum in which the records of colonial powers could be challenged or
condemned. Thus, the image of colonialism had been so tarnished that overseas
territories no longer represented a source of pride and grandeur for the mother
country, but a source of embarrassment which constantly needed to be justified
through socio-economic and political reforms. This period had however coincided
with the rise of nationalism, such that according to Crowder, no sooner had
reforms been presented than they were declared inadequate.[34]
A clear demonstration of the situation described by Crowder
is found in Nigeria’s constitutional development. For twenty four years,
Nigeria’s colonial constitution remained largely unchanged. However, as soon as
WWII ended, the 1946 Constitution came into being; as soon as the constitution
took its effect, it was declared inadequate, as nationalists demanded better
concessions which led to the 1951 constitution. Again, the 1951 constitution
was widely criticised such that in 1954, another constitution was introduced
while in 1957, a delegation had been sent to London to put together yet another
new constitution for Nigeria. Thus, the point to stress is that having gained
exposure during the Second World War, African nationalist leaders had become so
assertive that they were able to set Africa on a pathway which culminated in
independence during the latter half of the 20th Century.
However, there have been the debate among colonial
historians as to whether it was the nationalists that actually took
independence from their European colonial masters or it was the Europeans that
willingly granted independence to their African colonies.[35]
While this paper does not seek to delve into such an argument, it rather
stresses that for both sides of the debate, the Second World War is a recurrent
denominator. First, for the argument that independence was simply granted by
the European colonizers regardless of nationalist activities, the explanation
that follows is that the war left European powers too weakened and war-weary to
continue their grip on Africa. On the other hand, if nationalism is credited
for Africa’s independence, the role of the Second World War towards the rise of
nationalism cannot be wished away.
Nationalism in this study is taken to mean a common
consciousness of oppression, exploitation and humiliation among Africans which
thereby gave rise to anti-colonial feelings and activities.[36]
While the origin of nationalism in Africa predates the outbreak of the First
World War, Crowder stresses that the Second World War matured African
nationalism.[37]
This is because aside from the fact that the war revealed the humanity of the
white man, it as well created new social and economic conditions which the
nationalists were able to exploit in order to persuade the colonial governments
that they had a growing support for their cause. In turn, these new conditions
also mounted pressure on the nationalists to make more urgent their demands for
independence.
Commenting on the impact of WWII to the rise of nationalism,
Sithole stresses that among the different impacts of the Second World War on
Africa was the fact that the war led to the awakening of the people of Africa.
In his words, “during the war, Africans came in contact with practically all
the peoples of the earth, …the so-called civilised and peaceful and orderly
white people mercilessly butchering one another just as his so-called savage
ancestors had done in tribal wars.”[38]
They therefore did not understand why colonialism should continue based on the
pretext that Africans were savages who needed civilization.[39]A
valid example of the role of WWII ex-servicemen in African nationalism is the
Accra riots of 1948 which was organized by ex-servicemen against living
conditions, and has been inexorably linked to Ghana’s independence in 1957.[40]
Conclusion
The two world wars of the 20th Century were
indeed catastrophic events which did not only lead to the death of several
million people but as well to a number of radical changes in the world’s
socio-political landscape. More importantly, with regards to Africa in
contemporary international relations, the wars marked a watershed in Africa’s
history. Africans after the wars had been convinced of the fundamental errors
inherent in the nature of Africa’s relations with Europe at the time. Thus, in
years to come, Africans became more assertive in their demands for sweeping
socio-economic and political reforms. Such demands produced a range of
developments which climaxed with the attainment of independence in the latter
half of the 20th Century.
In this paper, Africa’s involvement in the two world wars
has been discussed alongside the impact of the wars on Africa’s socio-economic
and political development. The paper stresses that whereas Africa was still
much under colonial rule during the world war years, its people and territory
had been directly involved in the global conflicts. In furtherance, Africa’s
involvement in the two world wars is used to explain a range of socio-economic
and political developments in Africa during and after the world wars.
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