The Effect of Age on Learning English as a Second Language: A Study of Adult Learners in Arabic Teachers College, Gombe

Cite this article as: Ibrahim, A. U., & Ahmed, Y. (2025). The effect of age on learning English as a second language: A study of adult learners in Arabic Teachers College, Gombe. Sokoto Journal of Linguistics and Communication Studies (SOJOLICS), 1(3), 31–41. https://doi.org/10.36349/sojolics.2025.v01i03.005

THE EFFECT OF AGE ON LEARNING ENGLISH AS A SECOND LANGUAGE: A STUDY OF ADULT LEARNERS IN ARABIC TEACHERS COLLEGE, GOMBE

By

Amatullah Umar Ibrahim

ammynsheikh@gmail.com

Department of Language and Linguistics

Gombe State University

&

Yunana Ahmed, Ph.D.

ahmedyunana@gmail.com

Department of Language and Linguistics

Gombe State University

Abstract

This paper examines the influence of age on the learning of English as a second language among adult learners in the Arabic Teachers College (ATC), Gombe. Utilizing a mixed-methods approach that include both qualitative and quantitative, the study analyzes the relationship between age, emotional and cognitive factors, and learning strategies among learners at ATC.120 learners were randomly selected using a structured questionnaire, semi-structured interview, and classroom observation to collect data. Quantitative and qualitative data were collected and were analyze using statistical and thematic analysis. Contrary to the common assumption that younger learners possess an inherent advantage in second language learning, findings from this study revealed that older learners, particularly those aged 46–55, often excel in languageproficiency due to life experience, intrinsic motivation, and strategic learning approaches. However, the findings showed that emotional challenges like anxiety are more pronounced among this group, affecting their learning experience. This paper shows the need for inclusive educational policies that cater to the diverse needs of adult learners, advocating for teaching methods to optimize learning outcomes for all age groups.

Keywords: Second Language Learning, Age Factor, English Proficiency, Adult Education, Motivation, Gombe State

1. Introduction

Age has long been a central focus in second language acquisition (SLA), with researchers exploring how age influences language learning outcomes (Spinner & Gass, 2019), which instructional strategies are most effective across age groups, and which learners tend to achieve greater success (Aydin &Ozfidan, 2014; Aydin & Koc, 2012). These investigations often consider factors such as age at onset, learning environments, and exposure levels. SLA is typically categorized into childhood and adulthood acquisition phases, with the Critical Period Hypothesis (CPH) proposing an optimal window for language learning that diminishes with age (Lenneberg, 1967). Advocates of CPH argue that the brain’s plasticity in early life grants children a notable advantage, particularly in acquiring native-like pronunciation (Shakouri &Saligheh, 2012; Zhang, 2009; Munoz et al., 2010). However, after puberty, this flexibility declines, making native-level fluency more difficult and increasing the likelihood of retaining a foreign accent (Zafar & Meenakshi, 2012). While some adults do achieve high proficiency, they are often exceptions, and age-related self-consciousness is seen as an additional barrier. Nonetheless, others argue that pronunciation can be modified throughout life to reduce social stigma (Kerswill, 1996).

Despite its influence, the Critical Period Hypothesis remains contested. Scholars such as Archila-Suerte et al. (2012) highlight that factors such as limited exposure, ineffective instructional practices, and first-language (L1) dominance can hinder young learners from reaching native-like levels. Even early bilinguals may retain foreign accents due to continued use of their L1, which reduces opportunities for L2 input and output. Understanding how the age at which one begins learning a new language—referred to as the age of onset of acquisition (AOA), affects proficiency remains uncertain despite decades of study (Larson-Hall, 2012). AOA varies based on circumstances like immigration, immersion, or continued use of L1. While early starters often perform better, scholars continue to debate the primary causes. Some point to cognitive and neurological changes, while others highlight gradual skill decline, emotional factors, or motivational differences (White, 2013). These unresolved issues emphasize the need for further research, especially among adult learners in underrepresented contexts. This study seeks to address such gaps by examining language learning among older adults in Gombe State, Nigeria, focusing on how age influences second language learning outcomes in this unique socio-linguistic environment

Adults often approach language learning for practical reasons such as employment, education, or mobility (Smith & Strong, 2002). Effective instruction for adults tends to focus on functional language use, and tools like Web Quests and podcasts have been shown to enhance engagement. Zhang (2009) notes that adults may be easier to teach due to their responsibility and discipline, though they still require a supportive learning environment. Adults also benefit from formal learning styles, cooperative tasks, and analytical approaches (Smith & Strong, 2002). Motivation is a critical factor, with studies showing that personal interest in language and a desire for effective communication drive adult learning (Singleton, 2001; Kerswill, 1996). Unlike children, adults approach language learning more analytically due to their cognitive maturity, turning what is often an intuitive process into an intellectual task marked by self-awareness and critical thinking (Singleton, 2001; Nikolov &Djigunovic, 2006).

2. Literature Review

Age has remained a central variable in second language acquisition (SLA), with extensive scholarly attention given to how it affects learning processes and outcomes. While younger learners are often believed to hold an advantage due to neurological and cognitive flexibility, adult learners bring unique strengths, such as motivation, metacognitive awareness, and goal-directed learning. This literature review examines how age influences SLA from multiple dimensions, biological, cognitive, emotional, and environmental, while paying special attention to under-researched contexts such as adult learners in multilingual environments like Nigeria. Four key areas frame this discussion: the Critical Period Hypothesis, cognitive-affective factors, motivation and learning contexts, and the specific sociolinguistic landscape of Nigeria.

The Critical Period Hypothesis and Age-Related Constraints

The Critical Period Hypothesis (CPH) remains central to discussions on second language acquisition (SLA). Introduced by Lenneberg (1967), the theory posits that language acquisition is biologically constrained to a limited developmental window, ending around puberty. During this critical period, the brain is thought to be more receptive to linguistic input, making it easier for younger learners to attain native-like fluency. Johnson and Newport (1989) and Patkowski (1980) provided empirical support by demonstrating that early learners typically outperform late learners in morphosyntactic and phonological aspects of language. Pronunciation, in particular, is seen as highly sensitive to the age of onset.

Despite its influence, the CPH is not without critique. Birdsong (1999) documented cases of adults who achieved near-native proficiency, suggesting that age alone is not determinative. Scholars like Bialystok and Hakuta (1994) argue that while age may influence learning rate, it does not preclude successful acquisition. Oyama (1976) emphasized that social and contextual factors, including duration of exposure and the quality of input, play equally critical roles. The theory, though still widely cited, is increasingly understood as a heuristic rather than a definitive boundary in SLA.

Cognitive and Affective Influences on Adult Language Learning

Age influences not only biological receptivity but also the cognitive and emotional dimensions of learning. Adults bring with them fully developed cognitive systems, which afford them advantages in metalinguistic awareness, strategic learning, and analytical processing. They often approach language learning with a structured mindset, making use of grammar rules, translation techniques, and memory strategies that children typically do not access. Singleton (2001) and Nikolov and Djigunovic (2006) note that this cognitive maturity enables adults to grasp abstract concepts and apply formal rules more efficiently than younger learners.

However, cognitive maturity comes at a cost. Adults may become overly reliant on conscious learning, which can interfere with the natural acquisition processes more common in children. Moreover, the emotional stakes are often higher for adults. Language anxiety, fear of embarrassment, and perfectionism can inhibit risk-taking and experimentation, key behaviors for language learning. Adults may be more self-conscious and sensitive to correction, potentially slowing their progress. On the other hand, their clear learning goals, self-discipline, and motivation often compensate for these challenges.

Motivation, Exposure, and Learning Environments

Motivation is widely regarded as a crucial factor in SLA, often outweighing age in its impact on success. Adults frequently pursue second languages for functional reasons—employment, education, migration, or professional advancement. According to Smith and Strong (2002), this instrumental motivation can lead to higher levels of commitment and resilience in the learning process. Adults also benefit from learning environments that emphasize practical communication, collaborative learning, and technology integration, such as Web Quests, podcasts, and other multimedia tools (Zhang, 2009).

The quality and quantity of exposure to the target language also significantly influence outcomes. Adults often have limited access to immersive environments, especially in EFL (English as a Foreign Language) contexts like Nigeria. Inconsistent or fragmented exposure limits opportunities for practice and reinforcement. Even early bilinguals may not attain full native-like fluency if consistent and meaningful interaction in the second language is lacking. Archila-Suerte et al. (2012) argue that L1 dominance and environmental limitations can hinder L2 development, even among young learners, emphasizing the complexity of exposure as a variable.

The Nigerian Context and Age-Related Language Acquisition

In Nigeria, English serves as a second language and a medium of instruction, yet disparities in access, teaching quality, and exposure are widespread. In multilingual and multicultural regions such as Gombe State, learners often grow up speaking indigenous languages at home while encountering English primarily in school settings. This delayed and compartmentalized exposure can impact their ability to develop fluency, especially if instruction is limited to grammar-focused curricula with little emphasis on communicative competence.

Adult learners in Gombe typically pursue English to improve their educational standing, gain employment, or improve social mobility. Unlike in Western contexts, where immersion opportunities are more accessible, Nigerian learners often depend heavily on formal instruction. As a result, their learning trajectory is shaped not only by age-related cognitive and emotional factors but also by systemic constraints. Motivation remains high, but challenges such as poor infrastructure, limited qualified teachers, and inadequate learning resources persist.

Furthermore, in ATC Gombe, learners range across diverse age groups, from 18 to 55, each bringing unique experiences and motivations. Younger adults may adapt more quickly to classroom instruction, while older adults may require more time and support due to extended periods away from formal education. However, older learners often exhibit higher motivation and perseverance. Understanding these dynamics is crucial for designing age-appropriate pedagogies that reflect both the cognitive realities of adult learning and the sociolinguistic environment in which it takes place.

3. Theoretical Framework

This study draws upon Stephen Krashen’s theory of second language acquisition (SLA), which provides a comprehensive foundation for understanding how learners acquire a new language under different conditions. Krashen’s Input Hypothesis, in particular, posits that language acquisition occurs when learners are exposed to language input slightly beyond their current level of competence, labeled as “i+1.” This notion is particularly pertinent to adult learners, who may differ in how they process and internalize linguistic input depending on age, motivation, and cognitive flexibility. Krashen emphasizes naturalistic learning over conscious grammar instruction, highlighting the importance of comprehensible input, low anxiety environments, and learner motivation. The affective filter hypothesis within his model asserts that emotional variables such as anxiety, self-confidence, and motivation either facilitate or hinder the acquisition process, which makes it especially relevant to understanding adult learners across varying age ranges.

In the context of this study, Krashen’s theory offers a useful lens through which to examine how learners in Gombe State acquire English as a second language. The adult learners in this study, ranging in age from 18 to 55, are not only diverse in age but also in their emotional readiness, cognitive approaches, and exposure to English, all of which are central to Krashen’s framework. By situating the research within this theoretical context, the study aims to assess whether age correlates with differences in English language acquisition, particularly in relation to learners’ access to input, levels of anxiety, and motivation for learning.

4. Methodology

This study uses a mixed-methods approach to understand how age affects adult learners' ability to acquire the English language. By combining both quantitative and qualitative methods, it provides a deeper and more reliable analysis. The quantitative part includes structured questionnaires to measure differences in English proficiency and learning experiences among four age groups (18–25, 26–35, 36–45, and 46–55 years). On the qualitative side, semi-structured interviews and classroom observations focus on learners' emotions, motivations, and engagement, offering insights that numbers alone cannot capture. The participants, selected from the Government Arabic Teachers College (ATC) in Gombe State, represent a linguistically diverse group where English is taught as a second language. A sample of 120 participants was chosen through stratified random sampling to ensure fair representation across age brackets. Data collection involved questionnaires, interviews, and classroom observations, with an emphasis on emotional and contextual factors as highlighted by Krashen’s theories. Quantitative data were analyzed through statistical methods like ANOVA to identify significant differences, while thematic analysis of qualitative responses explored patterns such as anxiety, motivation, and confidence. This integrated design not only identifies what age-related changes occur but also examines why they happen, combining both statistical trends and personal experiences for a holistic understanding. The research was guided by the following questions: What are the differences in English proficiency among different age groups?Are there significant variations among age groups in terms of background, emotional cognitive factors? and Which of the following factors are the most predictors of English proficiency levels cognitive    affective demographic/Experiential factors?  The research also set out to achieve the following objectives: to investigate if there are differences in English proficiency among the age groups; to examine potential variations among the age groups in terms of background, emotional, and cognitive factors; to identify which of the cognitive, affective, or demographic/experiential factors most significantly predict the proficiency levels of the participants.

Data Presentation and Analysis

This section presents the analysis of data collected from 120 adult English language learners at the Government Teachers Arabic College in Gombe. The analysis explores the relationship between age and factors influencing English acquisition, including proficiency, emotional and cognitive factors, and learning strategies. Both quantitative and qualitative data are integrated to provide a comprehensive understanding of the research questions.

4.1  Quantitative Analysis

This paper examines demographic characteristics, particularly age and gender, and their impact on learning outcomes. Next, the paper presents ANOVA results to identify differences in total scores across age groups, along with post hoc comparisons for further clarification. Finally, the study explores the correlation between age and total scores to assess how age may influence language proficiency. This structured approach aims to enhance the understanding of factors contributing to language learning success.

Table 4.1: Descriptive Statistics

Categories	N	Minimum	Maximum	Mean	Std. Deviation
Age Group	120	1	4	2.43	1.207
Gender	120	1	2	1.49	.502
Years of learning English	120	1	3	2.08	.663
English proficiency score	120	5	24	18.51	4.947
Native Language	120	1	7	3.51	1.847
Educational background	120	1	1	2.87	.922
emotional factor	120	1	8	3.49	2.497
cognitive factors	120	1	3	2.00	.810
Valid N (listwise)	120

The table 4.1 presents descriptive statistics for the 120 respondents in the study. The age of respondents ranges from 1 to 4, which 1 represent 18-25, 2 26-35, 3 36-45, and 4 46-55 respectively, with a mean of 2.43. This indicates that most participants fall within the second age category. A standard deviation of 1.207 suggests moderate variability in age distribution. The gender distribution represented by 1(Male) and 2 (Female) which is slightly skewed, with a mean of 1.49 and a standard deviation of 0.502, indicating one gender is more represented.

The years of learning English range from 1 to 3 represent 1 as 1-3years, 2 as 4-6 years and 3 as above 6years respectively, with an average of 2.08 years and a standard deviation of 0.663. This indicates that most participants have limited exposure to the language. The proficiency scores range from 5 to 24 marks, with a mean score of 18.51 and a standard deviation of 4.94. It is reflecting a broad range of proficiency levels. Native language scores range from 1 to 7, representing Hausa, Fulfulde, Tera, Yoruba, Tangale, Waja and Kanuri respectively, with a mean of 3.51 and a standard deviation of 1.847. All respondents share the same educational background, as reflected by a minimum and maximum value of 1 (Adult education). Emotional factors (motivation, confidence and anxiety) range from 1 to 8 on scale of 1(high) and 3(low), with a mean of 3.49 and a standard deviation of 2.497. Cognitive factors (visual, auditory and kinesthetic learning) are represented by 1, 2 and 3 respectively, average of 2.00, with a standard deviation of 0.810. Overall, these statistics illustrate a diverse group with the same levels of background and varying proficiency in English.

The findings indicate that the respondents represent a diverse group in terms of age, gender, and English language learning experience. The moderate variability in age, along with the skewed gender distribution, suggests a well-rounded sample. The average of just over two years of English learning highlights that most participants are novices, which may impact their proficiency. The average English proficiency score of 18.51, with a standard deviation of 4.947, reveals significant differences in language ability among participants. This suggests that individual factors such as motivation and previous educational experiences play a crucial role. Emotional factors, with a mean of 3.49, indicate varying degrees of emotional challenges that could affect language acquisition. Cognitive factors, averaging 2.00, suggest that not all learners feel confident in their cognitive skills. These findings highlight the complexity of adult language learning

Demographic Presentation of the Respondents

Figure 4.1: Age Group Distribution

The bar chart illustrates the distribution of respondents across different age groups in terms of percentage. The age group of 18-25 years has the highest representation at 32.50%, indicating a significant portion of participants falls within this range. The 26-35 and 36-45 age groups each represent 20.00%, suggesting a moderate representation of adults in these categories. The 46-55 age group accounts for 27.50%, indicating a notable presence, though still less than the youngest group.

The findings from the chart reveal a diverse age distribution among the respondents, with a notable concentration of younger adults aged 18-25. This demographic may possess different motivations and learning styles compared to older participants. For instance, younger learners often have greater exposure to technology and may be more comfortable with digital learning methods. The moderate percentages in the 26-35 and 36-45 age groups suggest that these adults may have varying levels of experience and educational backgrounds, which could influence their approach to learning English as a second language. The 46-55 age group, while less represented, still comprises a significant portion of the sample, indicating that older learners are also engaged in language acquisition. Understanding these age dynamics is crucial for tailoring educational strategies specifically to the needs of these diverse groups. For example, younger learners might benefit from interactive and technology-driven approaches while older learners may require more traditional teaching methods that consider their previous experiences and potential apprehensions. All together, these findings underscore the importance of developing instructional methods that accommodate the varied backgrounds and learning preferences of adults in Gombe State seeking to improve their English language skills.

Figure 4.2: Gender Distribution

The pie chart illustrates the gender distribution among the respondents, highlighting a nearly balanced representation of males and females. Specifically, 49.17% of respondents identify as male, while 50.83% identify as female. This close distribution indicates a slight majority of females in the sample. The near-even split in gender representation suggests a fair level of inclusivity within the respondent group. Such balance is crucial for understanding diverse perspectives and experiences. Organizations and stakeholders can benefit this data to tailor programs and initiatives that cater to both genders effectively.

Figure 4.3: Year of Learning English

The bar chart shows the distribution of respondents based on their years of learning English. The 4-6 years’ group is the largest, at 55.83%. This indicates that most participants have moderate experience. The 1-3 years’ group represents 18.33%, showing fewer beginners. The above 6 years’ category accounts for 25.83%, indicating some respondents have extensive experience. The common assumption that younger learners possess an inherent advantage in second language acquisition (SLA), often rooted in the Critical Period Hypothesis, is challenged by the findings of this study. While some research suggests a decline in language learning abilities with age, the data from adult learners at ATC Gombe indicate a more complex relationship. The significant number of older learners (particularly in the 46-55 age group) who demonstrate strong English proficiency, often correlating with their longer years of learning experience, suggests that other factors are at play.

This finding supports Singleton’s (2001) argument that motivation and accumulated learning experience can compensate for any potential age-related decline in certain cognitive functions associated with language learning. Older learners, driven by diverse motivations such as personal enrichment, family connections, or professional development, may invest more time and effort into their language studies. This increased motivation, combined with their accumulated life experience and existing cognitive strategies, can lead to significant language gains. Furthermore, the qualitative data from this study provides further support for this argument. Older learners frequently cited strong intrinsic motivations for learning English, such as the desire to connect with family or engage with English-language media. This intrinsic motivation, coupled with their preference for structured learning environments and analytical approaches, may contribute to their success.

Effect of Age on English Proficiency

Table 4.2: English proficiency: One-way ANOVA result

Age Group (i)	Age Group(J)	Mean Difference (I-J)	p-value	significant
18-25	26-35	-4.640	.712	Not significant
	36-45	-2.611	.928	Not significant
	46-55	7.180	.262	Not significant
26-35	18-25	4.640	.712	Not significant
	36-45	2.029	.972	Not significant
	46-55	11.819*	.035	significant
36-45	18-25	2.611	.928	Not significant
	26-35	-2.029	.972	Not significant
	46-55	9.791	.098	Not significant
46-55	18-25	-7.180	.262	Not significant
	26-35	-11.819*	.035	significant
	36-45	-9.791	.098	Not significant

The mean difference is significant at the 0.05 level.

This table examines English test scores across different age groups to see if age has a real impact on performance. It compares the average scores of each age group to every other age group and uses a "p-value" to determine if the differences are statistically significant, meaning they're unlikely to be due to random chance. A p-value below 0.05 is considered significant. The key finding is that the 46-55year old group performed significantly better than the 26–35-year-old group, with a p-value of 0.035. This suggests that the older group's higher scores are probably not just a fluke. While the 46-55 group also scored higher than the 18-25 and 36-45 groups, these differences were not statistically significant (p > 0.05), meaning they could be due to chance. The comparisons among the younger age groups (18-25, 26-35, and 36-45) also showed no significant differences. In simpler terms, the table shows that the oldest group (46-55) did notably better on the English test compared to the 26-35 group, but there were no other clear differences between the other age groups. When the results show "not significant" differences in proficiency between some of the younger age groups, it simply means that the study didn't find strong enough evidence to conclude that there was a real difference based on age alone. It doesn't mean that nothing else is affecting their proficiency. It's quite possible that factors like motivation, learning strategies, prior language experience, and yes, even some level of anxiety or self-doubt, are influencing their learning, but these factors are probably distributed relatively evenly across those younger age groups.

These findings indicate the significant role of age in English language learning among adults in Gombe. The notable difference between the 46-55 age group and the 26-35 group suggests that older learners may have stronger motivations for learning English. They might be driven by personal or professional needs, which improve their learning outcomes. Additionally, their life experiences could lead to effective language acquisition strategies. While younger adults are often viewed as having cognitive advantages in learning, these results show that emotional and motivational factors are also crucial. Older learners may use different strategies that help them succeed in language learning despite any cognitive challenges. This indicates a need for educational programs to structure their approaches based on age, recognizing the strengths and unique needs of each group. The results emphasize the importance of understanding how age influences language acquisition. The result shows that older learners can achieve significant proficiency in English, sometimes surpassing younger learners. This insight is essential for developing effective ESL programs that address the diverse needs of adult learners in Gombe, ensuring that both younger and older students receive the necessary support for successful language learning.

Table 4.3: Pearson Correlation Test, between Age and English Proficiency Score

Category	Age of respondents	Total score
Age of respondents	1	.755**
Total score	.755**	1

Table 4.3 shows the results of the Pearson correlation test between the age of respondents and their English proficiency scores in the context of learning English as a second language among adults in ATC Gombe. The correlation coefficient is 0.755, indicating a strong positive relationship. The correlation for age with itself is 1, as expected. The significance level marked indicates that this correlation is significant at the 1% level, meaning it is unlikely to be due to chance.

The strong correlation of 0.755 suggests that as respondents' ages increase, their English proficiency scores also tend to rise. This implies that older adults may have more opportunities for language learning. They may benefit from formal education, life experiences, and greater exposure to English. The significance of the correlation at the 1% level highlights the importance of age in English language acquisition. It suggests that factors like motivation and access to resources may improve as individuals get older.

Table 4.4 Emotional factors: One-way ANOVA results

Age group (i)	Age group (j)	Mean difference (ij)	p-value	significance
18-25	26-35	-.502	.849	Not significant
	36-45	-.294	.962	Not significant
	46-55	-2.183*	.001	Significant
26-35	18-25	.502	.849	Not significant
	36-45	.208	.989	Not significant
	46-55	-1.681*	.035	Significant
36-45	18-25	.294	.962	Not significant
	26-35	-.208	.989	Not significant
	46-55	-1.889*	.011	Significant
46-55	18-25	2.183*	.001	Significant
	26-35	1.681*	.035	Significant
	36-45	1.889*	.011	Significant

The mean difference is significant at the 0.05 level

The one-way ANOVA results presented in Table 4.4 reveal significant differences in emotional factors affecting English language learning among various age groups, particularly highlighting the challenges faced by the 46-55 age group. The mean difference between the 46-55 group and the 18-25 group is -2.183 (p = .001), indicating that older learners experience significantly more emotional challenges, such as anxiety and self-doubt, in the language learning process. The 46-55 group also shows significant mean differences with the 26-35 (-1.681, p = .035) and 36-45 (-1.889, p = .011) groups. In contrast, comparisons among the younger age groups (18-25, 26-35, and 36-45) yield non-significant results, suggesting that these cohorts share similar emotional experiences when learning English. For instance, the mean differences between 18-25 and 26-35 (-.502, p = .849) and between 18-25 and 36-45 (-.294, p = .962) indicate no significant emotional discrepancies. The results reveal a compelling contrast in the emotional experiences of adult English language learners across different age groups. While younger learners (18-25, 26-35, and 36-45) exhibit similar levels of emotional engagement with language learning, the 46-55 age group reports significantly higher levels of negative emotions, such as anxiety and self-doubt. This finding is supported by statistically significant mean differences between the oldest group and all younger cohorts (p < .05 in all comparisons with the 46-55 group). This does not imply that proficiency is simply a matter of chance; rather, it suggests that these heightened emotional challenges faced by older learners likely contribute to observed variations in proficiency. Although younger learners may also experience some anxiety or self-doubt, the significantly greater emotional burden experienced by the 46-55 group suggests that these factors play a more prominent role in their learning process. This underscores the importance of creating supportive learning environments that specifically address the emotional needs of older adult learners, recognizing that factors beyond age itself, such as these emotional challenges, significantly influence language acquisition. Anxiety and self-doubt significantly impact learning. A substantial body of research demonstrates that these negative emotions can hinder language acquisition in various ways (Horwitz et al., 1986; MacIntyre, 1999; Dörnyei, 2005). Learners experiencing anxiety or low self-esteem often struggle with reduced attention and focus, making it challenging to concentrate on learning materials (Eysenck, 1992). Furthermore, anxiety can impair memory and recall processes, hindering the retention of new vocabulary and grammatical rules (Baddeley, 2003).

These findings profound impact of age on the emotional factors influencing English language learning, particularly for older adults in the 46-55 age group. The significant mean differences highlight that older learners often face heightened emotional barriers, such as increased anxiety and self-doubt, which can hinder their engagement and progress in acquiring a new language. This emotional burden can stem from various sources, including societal expectations, fear of making mistakes, and a lack of confidence in their ability to learn a new language later in life. In contrast, the younger age groups demonstrate a more stable emotional landscape, suggesting that they may be more motivated and confident in their learning experiences. This emotional resilience among younger learners may be attributed to factors such as greater social support, a more adaptable mindset, and a willingness to take risks in language acquisition. The implications for educators at the government teachers’ Arabic college in Gombe State are significant. There is a clear need for design the strategies that specifically address the emotional challenges faced by older learners. Implementing programs that foster a supportive and encouraging learning environment can help mitigate feelings of anxiety and self-doubt among older students. Such strategies might include peer mentoring, positive reinforcement, and creating opportunities for practical application of language skills in a supportive setting.

These results emphasize the necessity for educators to recognize the emotional dynamics associated with different age groups. By understanding how age influences emotional factors in language learning, educators can develop more effective teaching approaches that cater to the specific needs of adult learners, ultimately enhancing their experiences in learning English as a second language.

Age group (i)	Age group (j)	Mean difference (ij)		p-value		significance
18-25	26-35	.154	.889		Not significant
	36-45	-.240	.663		Not significant
	46-55	.168	.818		Not significant
26-35	18-25	-.154	.889		Not significant
	36-45	-.394	.312		Not significant
	46-55	.014	1.000		Not significant
36-45	18-25	.240	.663		Not significant
	26-35	.394	.312		Not significant
	46-55	.408	.205		Not significant
46-55	18-25	-.168	.818		Not significant
	26-35	-.014	1.000		Not significant
	36-45	-.408	.205		Not significant

Table 4.5 Cognitive factors: One-way ANOVA results

The results from the one-way ANOVA presented in Table 4.5 indicate that there are no significant differences in cognitive factors among the various age groups when learning English. For instance, the mean difference between the 18-25 and 26-35 age groups is .154 (p = .889), which is not significant. Similarly, comparisons between the 18-25 group and the 36-45 (-.240, p = .663) and 46-55 (.168, p = .818) groups also yield non-significant results. The 26-35 age group shows mean differences with the other age groups that are likewise not significant, such as 18-25 (-.154, p = .889), 36-45 (-.394, p = .312), and 46-55 (.014, p = 1.000). The 36-45 age group’s comparisons with the younger groups also reflect a lack of significant differences, with p-values remaining above the typical threshold for significance (0.05). Lastly, the 46-55 group shows no significant differences with any of the other age groups, with mean differences ranging from -.168 to -.408.The findings highlight that cognitive factors in English language learning do not vary significantly across different age groups, suggesting a level of uniformity in how cognitive processes impact language acquisition regardless of age. This lack of significant differences may indicate that all age groups engage with cognitive tasks, such as comprehension and retention, in similar ways. It implies that cognitive abilities related to language learning such as memory, attention, and problem-solving are relatively consistent among adults, regardless of whether they are in their late teens, early adulthood, middle age, or older adulthood.From an educational perspective, this uniformity suggests that instructional strategies focusing on cognitive development may be equally effective across age groups. Therefore, educators could implement teaching methods that target cognitive skills, such as critical thinking exercises and memory-enhancing techniques, without needing to tailor them specifically for different age ranges. However, while cognitive factors appear consistent, it is essential to consider other emotional or motivational factors that may still influence learning outcomes differently across age groups. these results contribute to the understanding of adult language learning by indicating that cognitive capabilities do not significantly differ by age, allowing for a more generalized approach to teaching English to adult learners.

 

Qualitative Findings and Discussion

This section presents the key insights from the written responses elicited from provided by adult learners at the Government Teachers Arabic College in Gombe. These responses offer a deeper understanding of learners’ experiences, challenges, strategies, and motivations as they study English. Themes emerged from their answers, which were grouped into categories to show how age, emotion, background, and learning styles influence their learning journey.

Different Learning Approaches by Age

Younger and older learners use different strategies to improve their English. Many younger learners mentioned using technology like WhatsApp, YouTube, and English movies. These methods help them learn vocabulary and practice speaking in informal ways. On the other hand, older learners often relied on more traditional methods such as reading newspapers, writing down new words, and listening to the radio.

Examples include:

A 22-year-old shared: "I try to talk in English with my friend on WhatsApp, even if I make mistakes, I learn from them."

A 51-year-old said, "I write new words in a small book. Every morning before I go out, I look at it. It helps me remember."

These responses show how age affects learning preferences. Younger learners benefit more from technology and informal practice, while older learners prefer structured and familiar methods. Blended learning—combining both approaches—could benefit all learners.

Motivations for Learning English

Motivation was a strong theme across all age groups, but reasons for learning English varied. Younger learners mostly focused on finishing school, going to university, or getting jobs. Older learners were motivated by personal goals such as reading books, staying mentally active, or helping their children.

Some examples:

A 50-year-old said, "I want to learn English so I can understand the news and what is happening around the world."

A 20-year-old said, "I want to finish secondary school so I can go to university and get a good job."

A 30-year-old mentioned, "I want to be a better role model for my children."

These examples show that motivation is not about age—it’s about purpose. Learners with strong personal or career-related goals were more committed and showed better progress.

Challenges and Difficulties Faced

Older learners often expressed difficulty with grammar and writing correct sentences. They also found idiomatic expressions and complex rules confusing. Younger learners, on the other hand, had trouble with understanding accents or speaking in formal settings.

Examples:

A 51-year-old wrote: "I find it hard to write correct sentences with grammar."

A 23-year-old said, "It is challenging to speak English formally, like in presentations."

These challenges suggest that teaching should be tailored to meet the specific needs of each group, with extra support where needed.

Anxiety and Emotional Barriers

A major theme among older learners was anxiety, especially in classroom settings with younger classmates. Many said they felt uncomfortable asking questions or speaking out loud because they didn’t want to appear slow or make mistakes.

Some examples:

A 45-year-old shared: "I worry about not keeping up with the younger students. They learn so quickly."

A 38-year-old said, "I feel embarrassed to ask questions because I don’t want to slow the class down."

A 30-year-old added: "I feel pressure to perform well because I am older, and I don’t want to disappoint my family."

These emotional challenges can create barriers to learning. Supportive classroom environments, where learners feel safe and respected, are essential for overcoming these feelings.

Preferred Learning Styles

Learners showed a wide range of preferences in how they liked to learn English. Some enjoyed visual learning, like reading and writing. Others preferred speaking practice, listening to music, or learning through real-life situations.

For example:

A 20-year-old said, "I learn best when we practice conversations. It helps me remember the phrases."

A 35-year-old shared: "Writing things down helps me remember."

A 41-year-old said, "I listen to English music and try to understand. It helps with pronunciation and vocabulary."

These responses show the need for diverse teaching methods. Lessons should include speaking, listening, reading, and writing activities so that all learning styles are supported.

Importance of External Resources and Support

Access to technology, books, and practice outside the classroom made a big difference for many learners. Those who used YouTube, spoke with English-speaking friends, or read extra materials said they improved more quickly. However, some learners had limited access to these tools and relied only on what the school provided.

Examples:

A 27-year-old said, "I use YouTube videos to help me learn when the teacher is not around."

A 39-year-old said, "I don’t have internet at home, so I only use the materials from school."

This shows the need to provide equal access to learning resources for all learners, especially those with fewer opportunities outside school. Previous studies, such as Smith and Strong (2002), have also emphasized that adult learners progress better when they have access to supportive learning tools, technology, and continuous exposure to the target language. However, unlike earlier research that focused mainly on learners in well-resourced environments, the findings from this study reveal that many adult learners in Gombe rely almost entirely on school-provided materials due to limited external resources. While past studies assume consistent availability of learning support, this research shows that environmental limitations significantly shape learners’ progress in low-resource settings.

5. Conclusion

This study explored how age affects adults learning English as a second language at Government Teachers Arabic College in Gombe, Nigeria. Using both numbers and personal stories, the research looked at how age interacts with emotions, thinking skills, and motivation. While younger learners often performed better in vocabulary and speaking fluency, older learners, especially those between 46 and 55, showed strong skills in reading and grammar. This challenges the idea that younger people always learn languages better. Emotional factors like anxiety were more common among older learners, but they also showed strong focus and used structured learning strategies effectively. Thinking ability didn’t vary much by age, showing that with the right teaching methods, all age groups can succeed.

Motivation and learning preferences also varied. Younger learners often studied English for school or work goals, while older learners wanted to connect with family, grow personally, or engage socially. Technology appealed more to younger learners, who used apps and media, while older learners preferred traditional classroom settings. However, all learners valued lessons that related to real life. These findings suggest that language programs should be flexible, offering both digital and classroom options, and should focus on supporting learners emotionally and personally. Instead of focusing only on age, teachers and policymakers should create inclusive environments that match learners’ needs and goals.This research was limited to only a school in further research should include more schools to provide robust findings.

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