Common Errors: An Obstacle to Effective Teaching and Learning Composition Writing in an ESL Classroom

Cite this article as: Yandamo, A. S., & Hammed, S. (2025). Common errors: An obstacle to effective teaching and learning composition writing in an ESL classroom. Sokoto Journal of Linguistics and Communication Studies (SOJOLICS), 1(3), 24–30. https://www.doi.org/10.36349/sojolics.2025.v01i03.004

COMMON ERRORS: AN OBSTACLE TO EFFECTIVE TEACHING AND LEARNING COMPOSITION WRITING IN AN ESL CLASSROOM

By

Ado Sanda Yandamo

Department of Language and Communication Education,

Federal College of Education (Technical), Bichi

&

Salami Hammed, PhD

Department of Language and Communication Education,

Federal College of Education (Technical), Bichi

Abstract

This study explored the types and frequency of errors committed by NCE 2 students of Federal College of Education (Technical) Bichi in composition writing.  Anchored on the Error Analysis Theory by Corder (1967), the research adopted a descriptive survey design and utilized written composition tasks for data collection. Findings revealed that only 11% of the students wrote grammatically correct sentences, 84% produced incorrect sentences, while 5% did not attempt the task at all. These results indicate a critical deficiency in students’ ability to construct well-formed sentences, posing a significant barrier to both teaching and learning of written composition in English as a Second Language setting. Based on the findings, recommendations were made amongst which were: that the NCCE should emphasize teaching of grammar, syntax and composition in the NCE curriculum, and that English teachers should create more practical writing exercises in the classes, and at the same time create an avenue that will promote reading culture among students as a very good reading habit naturally improves writing ability of the learners.

Keywords: Common errors, grammar, syntax, composition writing, ESL classroom

1.  Introduction

In the globalized world of education, English has emerged as a dominant language of communication, instruction and academic achievement. For learners of English as a second language (ESL), acquiring proficiency in written communication is both essential and challenging (Crystal, 2003). One of the most persistent barriers to effective teaching and learning of English in ESL classroom is the prevalence of common errors in students’ writing. Written communication is a critical component of language proficiency in English as a second language. However, the persistent occurrence of common errors in students’ writing poses a significant challenge to both effective instruction and language acquisition.

In Nigeria, it is mandatory for every student to offer and pass General English Courses with a view to acquiring the necessary communication skills before they are graduated and employed to teach in primary and post-primary schools. Therefore, taking into account the curricula of  the General English courses, composition writing forms an integral part of it as it is meant to expose learners to acquire and master the skills needed in written communication (Federal Republic of Nigeria,2020). Unfortunately, many students find it very difficult to communicate among themselves, and with their teachers, with ease more especially when it comes to answering essay part of the General English semester examination questions. Many of the students find it difficult to express themselves effectively, as their answer scripts are full of errors emanating from morphological, syntactic, semantic and mechanical errors, hence teachers find it very difficult to get a gist of their answers. This, of course, results in failure of the semester examinations. Consequently, this problem spreads across all the other courses offered since English is the language of instruction in the Nigerian formal schools. Therefore, measures that can help to minimize this persistent problem are very much essential.

Marpinjun (2015) states that learning a foreign language is a difficult task, especially English. This is because the language has different rules and structures when compared with learners’ mother tongues. That is why many students make errors in learning English at the expense of their mother tongues (MTs)/First languages (L1). It has long been established that learners from diverse linguistic backgrounds almost universally have difficulty with certain things, whether they existed or not in their mother tongue. Hence, understanding the nature, causes, and impact of these errors is crucial for developing targeted teaching strategies and improving learners’ outcomes. This paper explores the most frequent type of writing errors encountered in ESL classrooms, examines their implications for both teaching and learning, and pedagogical approaches that can help overcome these obstacles to foster more effective written communication.

2. Literature Review

Irfan (2024) noted that EFL and ESL are acronyms that stand for English as a Foreign Language and English as a Second Language, respectively. They are used to describe the status and purpose of learning or teaching English in different situations and contexts. EFL refers to learning or teaching English in a non-English-speaking country, where English is not the official or dominant language. For example, learning or teaching English in China, Japan, or Brazil would be considered as EFL. ESL, on the other hand, refers to the learning and teaching of English to people whose first language (mother tongue) is not English. They are learning English after already acquiring their native language. For example, learning or teaching English in Nigeria, Ghana, Uganda etc (Irfan, 2024). Post University Blog (2025) specifically, viewed ESL students as learners who are learning English exclusively as a second language. This means they may have been raised to speak and write a different language and are now trying to learn English in addition to their native language.

Error in relation to language, and in this case, English, can be defined as a deviation phenomenon from the standard version of the language, which is not acceptable to the speakers of the standard version because of its incorrectness (Alobo, 2012). Moiden and Liaw (2021) put language errors simply as competence errors. These errors occur due to speakers’ or writers’ weakness because they do not master the target language. Language errors are known as performance errors influenced by the writer’s physical factors such as fatigue, drowsiness, forgetfulness, emotional stress and hastening to complete a task. Theseare considered as mistakes as they do not occur because users do not know the rules of the language, rather they occur because of extralinguistic factors, which may be physical or emotional, that sometimes interfere in language use. Performance errors are also known as ‘slips of the tongue’. Brians (2013) also perceived errors as deviations from the standard use of English as judged by sophisticated users such as professional writers, editors and teachers. Brown (2000) and Richards (1992) are of the opinion that language errors occur as a result of differences between the first language and the target language of the learners, extreme generalizations, misconceptions, and other factors are contributing towards committing errors by learners when using the target language especially in ESL classroom.

Corder (1975) sees the semantic boundary between mistake and error as a conventional distinction. Mistake is described as a deviation in the speakers’ language that occurs when the speakers, although familiar with the rule, fail to perform according to their competence, whereas error is defined as a deviation resulting from ignorance of the rule. Making errors can be regarded as an inherent phenomenon in language production, since it results from complicated cognitive and motor activities, while correction could then restore the faulty utterance. Similarly, Kawasaki (2020) views a mistake as an accident or a lapse, something that your EFL/ESL students actually know and that they can most likely correct themselves when they are given the chance. This can be a typo, using the wrong word, or a small grammatical mistake. Error is something that your students do not know because they have not learned it yet or they have forgotten it. This is where your students need you the most, in order to effectively correct their errors and help them develop their language skills. Brown (2000) asserted that a mistake (in performance) refers to a performance error, in that it is the learner’s failure to utilize a known system correctly, while an error (incompetence) is a noticeable deviation from the adult grammar of a native speaker, reflecting the interlanguage competence of the learner. Brown added that errors are systematic deviation from the norm or set of norms which cannot be self-corrected when pointed out to the speaker/writer unlike mistake which can quickly be recognized and corrected. Also, Mezrag (2013) and Sampong (2014) stated that the difference between error and mistake can be identified by considering the frequency at which deviation from the standard version of the language is occurring in the learner’s use of language.

Thus, the term error can be referred to as the regular patterns in the learners’ speech or writing that differ from the target language (TL) model. The regularity of such patterns reveals the learners’ underlying competence. This is to say that the second language learners can correct their mistakes, but the errors they make are part of the current system of their inter-language and hence not recognizable to the learners themselves.Jabeen and Shahbaz (2015) established that it is essential for learners to make mistakes in the process of language learning and the systematic analysis of these errors is very important because the error analysis serves as a linguistics analysis and it provides a deep insight in the process of language learning; it also suggests many solutions to various language learning-related problems. Other reasons that make learners commit errors according to Jabeen and Shahbaz (2015), include: language transfer, overgeneralization, simplification, fossilization, lack of the knowledge of the rules and interference.

Kawasaki (2020) and Sarkar and Dave (2022) state that learners learn by making mistakes. We learn a new language by making uncountable mistakes in the use of words, grammar, sentence structure, pronunciation, and register and this permits the formulation of rules for learners’ interlingual systems and innate strategies to learn the target language (TL). These provide the teachers confirmation of not only what remains to be learned but also to adapt themselves to the learners’ needs rather than impose upon them their preconceptions of how to learn, what to learn and when to learn as learners’ errors have psycholinguistic implications. It can help teachers to identify, in a requisite manner, the specific and common language problems students have.This can help teachers to improvise their teaching techniques, determine learning objectives, and modify the syllabus that can help the students minimize or overcome their learning problems.Ontesol (2022) added that error correction is an essential aspect of language learning because it directly influences learner’s ability to communicate effectively asit boosts understanding and aids in the retention of knowledge, allowing for consistent progress. Similarly, XIE and Xue-mei(2007) revealed that, in foreign language learning, error correction has become one of the important teaching processes.

However, Ontesol (2021) outlined most of the common errors which if not properly handled can militate against proper handling of an ESL class. They include:  missing comma after introductory phrase, vague pronoun reference, missing comma in compound sentence, wrong word, no comma in nonrestrictive clauses, wrong/missing inflected ends, wrong/missing preposition, comma splice, possessive apostrophe error, unnecessary shift in person, sentence fragment, wrong tense or verb form and subject-verb agreement.

Results from the studies conducted by Zuo (2017) andOutsia (2025) show that proper facilitation from teachers is more effective to help second language learners achieve their goals in target language as different errors require different forms of correction, depending on the level, context and goal of the learners.Blonska(2023) added that one of the essential tasks expected from an ESL teacher, is to help students learn the English language. The best way to do this is by effectively correcting their errors whichare an important part of the learning process that can help learners to learn faster and more effectively. In addition,Brown (2007) stressed that teachers’ monitoring learners' reactions and responses is pivotal in assessing error correction strategies in ESL contexts. Observing facial expressions, body language, and verbal cues enables teachers to gauge comprehension and emotional responses.Finally under this is that Grade University Teacher Training Department of Grade Education (2025) recommends that correcting errors should be based on the students’ abilities, starting with errors that affect communication, moving on to common errors, and finally errors that annoy or feel emotionally uncomfortable. 

3.  Theoretical Framework

The theoretical framework used for this study is Error Analysis (EA) proposed by Corder (1967). It is used to demonstrate that the errors L2 learners make are not always due to the learners’ native language but due to other complex factors. Hashim (1992) established that factors like communicative strategies and the quality of second language instruction result in L2 error. Communicative strategies in this respect refer to the techniques L2 learners use to compensate for their limited language proficiency when attempting to convey meaning. These strategies can sometime lead to errors, as learners may resort to approximation (using similar but incorrect word examples such as ship instead of boat), borrowing words from their mother tongues due to inadequate vocabulary, direct translation, overgeneralization among others. However, the effectiveness ofL2 instruction reduces errors that L2 learners commit. Some of the ways of ensuring L2 instruction effectiveness include: using good teaching methods, adopting error correction practices, and availability and effective utilization of authentic language materials etc. Hashim (2012) added that these factors are rooted in interlanguage theory, which is a concept in second language acquisition (SLA). Hashim (2012) however, established that how learners develop their own evolving linguistic system.When acquiring a new language, sometimes they commit errors. This system called an interlanguage, is influenced by the learners’ first language (L1) and the target language (L2) and general learning strategies. According to interlanguage theory, error analysis is related to the learners’ developmental stages, transfer of some linguistic items from L1, overgeneralization of L2 rules and systematic nature of errors.

In this study, Error Analysis is used as the theoretical framework for analysis because it is adequate to analyze any types of error made by ESL learners in their writing irrespective of their sources. According to Corder (1975), Error Analysis (EA) is reserved for the study of erroneous utterances produced by learners of a language. Since English, though an official language, is a second language to all Nigerians,no matter their level of education, we continue to learn English every day; hence the adequacy of the theory to analyzing utterances by Nigerian users of English.

4.  Methodology

The study adopted thedescriptive research design. Itwas considered appropriate because the purpose of the researchwas to identify, classify and describe the errors made by NCE 2 students in their composition writing without manipulating any variable. The population of the study is 72 NCE II students of School of Secondary Education (Technical) and 72 NCE II students of Home Economics and Fine and Applied Arts Departments of School of Secondary Education (Vocational), Federal College of Education (Technical), Bichi. This made the study’s population to be 144, where 106 subjects were selected as study’s sample size obtained using the Slovene’s formulaintroduced by Ivan Šoltes in 1972 to help researchers statistically determine the sample size of their research works. The researchers considered 106 sentences too many to manage in a study of this nature.They, therefore, used purposive and proportionate sampling techniques to select 37 sentences from the respondents’ answer booklets; each 2^ndsentence of the respondents’ 1^st essay question attempted.The instruments used for data collection was documentation and observation of the students’ first semester General English III 2024/2025 session examination scrip.

5.  Data Presentation

The data were presented in tablesand analyzed using thematic analysis. Errors were classified into six: concord (agreement), morphological, redundancy (repetition), semantic, syntactic and mechanical errors.

S/No	Sentence composed by students	Probable correct version of the sentence	Types of error(s) committed
1.	The fixed the gate carpenter	The carpenter fixed the gate.	Syntactic and mechanical errors
2.	the ate the goat in the porestYesterday	The hyena ate the goat in the forest yesterday.	Syntactic, spelling and mechanical errors
3.	Register isrefers to the way by which language is uses by determinate by different social situations.	Register refers to the way by which language is used as determined by different social situations.	Concord and morphological errors
4.	Topic sentence is the one that states in general term the central idea of a paragraph	A topic sentence is the one that states in general term the central idea of a paragraph.	Syntactic and Mechanical error
5.	The gate was fixed by the carpenter.	The gate was fixed by the carpenter.	No error committed
6.	Idiomatic expression is the construction that made up of group of word and used to cover one single restricted of meaning.	Idiomatic expression is a construction that is made up of a group of words which covers one single restricted meaning.	Concord error
7	she olthe the rites cea the	she olthe the rites cea the	Not meaningful
8	Denotative means is literal Meaning or dictionary Meaning of a word	Denotative meaning is a literal or dictionary meaning of a word.	Morphological error, omission of article and full stop; and wrong capitalization
9	the gate fixed by carpenter	The gate was fixed by the carpenter.	Syntactic error and mechanical errors
10	Denotative meaning is the study hard is an which of the following	Denotative meaning is the study hard is an which of the following	Not meaningful
11	the gate fixed the carpenter	The gate fixed the carpenter.	Semantic error and mechanical errors
12	Sentence is a group of word that make to complete sentence.	Sentence is a group of words that makes a complete sense.	Concord error
13	the rat was killed by the boy	The rat was killed by the boy.	Mechanical errors
14	the gate fixe was carpenter	The gate was fixed by the carpenter.	Syntactic and mechanical errors
15	the test done by He	The test has been done by him.	Mechanical, syntactic and concord errors
16	are the goat hyena the	are the goat hyena the	Not meaningful
17	A register refers to Theliarialy of language man may in a fractice of social setting	A register referes to Theliarialy of language man may in a fractice of social setting	Not meaningful
18	A phrase is a group of words that often luck a finite verb and usually forms part of a sentence is	Phrase is a group of words often without a finite verb that forms part of a sentence.	Concord and semantic (wrong choice of word) errors
19	Register often by the specific vocabulary, expression style there language a part of the setting.	Register often by the specific vocabulary, expression style there language a part of the setting.	Not meaningful
20	Register refers to a valiesty of lunguge	Register refers to a variety of language.	Spelling and mechanical errors
21	Did not attempt any question in section C
22	Denotative Meaning is The one that statu in genenr termen Thecantrerida	Denotative meaning is the one that states in general terms thecentralidea	Spelling and mechanical errors
23	The boy was killed the rat	The boy killed the rat.	Semantic, syntactic and mechanical errors
24	Register can be defined as the selling something or to dising the Work.	Register can be defined as the recording of something.	Syntactic and semantic errors
25	The gate was fixed by the carpenter	The gate was fixed by the carpenter.	Mechanical error
26	register can be defined as register of people to the many population the society.	Register can be defined asregisterationof people in thesociety.	Syntactic, concord and mechanical errors
27	Did not attempt any question in section C
28	Denotation refers to the actual meaning of the word.	Denotation refers to the actual meaning of the word.	No error committed
29	register is a way of starting something before start work like school.	Register is a way of putting down one’s name as evidence of registration before starting to do something like schooling.	Mechanical, semantic and morphological errors
30	the goat ate the hyena	*The goat ate the hyena.	Mechanical and semantic errors
31	She post the letter yesterday	She posted the letter yesterday.	Concord and mechanical errors
32	The boys are playing together.	The boys are playing together.	No error committed
33	The letter was posted by her yesterday.	The letter was posted by her yesterday.	No error committed
34	register isThealdendentoFpeopleThe named andregu	Register is thebook used for documenting the attendance of people,in a programme.	Mechanical, spelling and semantic errors
35	The carpenter can yourdesing	Carpenter, can you make some designs?	Syntactic, concord, mechanical and spelling errors
36	Is a group of WordsWith a subject and predicate, that may or May not stand on its own.	A clause is a group of words with a subject and predicate, that may or may not stand on its own.	Mechanical errors
37	the rat the boy killed.	the boy killed the rat.	Syntactic and mechanical errors

The table above presents data gathered and analyzed by the researchers. The first column indicates the serial number of the respondents. The second column presents the students’ compositions in their original forms (as they were written by the students) and the error(s) found indicated by bolding the affected part(s) of the sentence as indicated in the second column. While, the data presented in the third column represent the probable corrected versions of the sentences where the part(s) of the sentence corrected were bolded. However, the last (4^th) column indicates the type of error(s) committed by the students in their composition writing.

 

6.  Discussion of Findings

Based on the data interpreted above, the research findings show that out of 37 respondents only 4 students were The findings of this study indicate that the majority of students exhibited significant deficiencies in mechanical accuracy, an essential aspect of written communication. Analysis of the data revealed that only four out of thirty-seven respondents, representing 11%, were able to construct sentences without any errors. Conversely, two respondents (5%) did not attempt any of the compulsory essay questions in section ‘C’ of the examination, highlighting a lack of confidence and reluctance to engage in composition writing. The remaining thirty-one respondents, accounting for 83% of the sample, produced sentences containing one or more errors, including syntactic, mechanical, concord, morphological, semantic, and spelling errors. These findings underscore a pervasive weakness in the knowledge and application of sentence structure and grammatical conventions among students. The results align with Ontesol (2021), who identified common errors in ESL classrooms, such as missing commas after introductory phrases, vague pronoun references, incorrect or missing inflections, wrong word choices, misuse of prepositions, comma splices, possessive apostrophe errors, unnecessary shifts in person, sentence fragments, tense or verb form errors, and subject-verb agreement issues. Overall, the study confirms that deficiencies in composition writing pose a significant threat to students’ academic progress and underscore the urgent need for targeted instructional interventions to strengthen writing skills.

7.  Conclusion

At the tertiary level, the ability to write effectively in English is not only a fundamental academic skill but also a key determinant of the students’ overall success. However, the prevalence of common errors in written composition continues to pose a significant challenge in ESL classrooms; specifically, Federal College of Education (Technical), Bichi. These errors are ranging from poor grammatical choices and incorrect punctuation to flawed sentence structures and inappropriate word usage which all hinder students from communicating their thoughts clearly and logically. They also complicate the task of instructors who must invest additional time and effort on correcting and interpreting students’ work.

The presence of these errors is often linked to a number of factors, including first language interference, lack of exposure to standard English usage, inadequate reading culture, social media use of language and insufficient mastery of writing conventions. When left unaddressed, such errors not only affect the academic performance of students but also diminish their confidence and at the same time limit their readiness for professional communication. It is therefore essential for ESL teachers at the tertiary level to adopt comprehensive strategies aimed at reducing these errors.

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