Cite this article as: Kaita, A. S. (2025). Predicting pronunciation challenges in the use of the English pure vowels by Hausa as English second language (ESL) learners. Sokoto Journal of Linguistics and Communication Studies (SOJOLICS), 1(3), 47–52. https://www.doi.org/10.36349/sojolics.2025.v01i03.007
PREDICTING PRONUNCIATION CHALLENGES IN THE USE OF THE
ENGLISH PURE VOWELS BY HAUSA AS ENGLISH SECOND LANGUAGE (ESL) LEARNERS
By
Abdullahi Sani Kaita
Umaru Musa Yar'adua University, Katsina
Abstract
CAH claims that
(dis)similarities between two languages determine the level of difficulty or
ease second language learners would encounter.This came up as a result of the
practice of comparing languages. A number of models that will assist in
predicting such areas have been developed. One of such models is Prator’s
(1967) Hierarchy of Difficulty. This paper therefore employs Prator’s
predictive power in order to contrast the English and Hausa pure vowels. The
aim is to predict areas of difficulty and/or verify the difficulty levels. The
researcher used relevant phonology textbooks of both languages (i.e. Gimson’s
‘Pronunciation of English’ and Mu’azu’s ‘TsarinSauti da Nahawun Hausa’)
for better distribution of the sounds into appropriate levels. A short story
was composed for Hausa ESL learners in pronouncing the English pure vowels. The
researcher composed the story with the theme, “Leaning English Pronunciation”.
The story was read three (3) times by the students while the researcher
recorded their voices. The third recordings were listened to and the actual
realisation of the individual sounds by the students was recorded and analysed.
The researcher assumes that in the third reading, the students already became
familiar with the words in the story. Consequently, their pronunciation in the
third round is supposed to be natural. It is found that the predictive power
predicts some levels of difficulty. For instance, the vowels /ʌ/, /æ/, /ɜ:/ and
/ə/ were predicted to be more difficult to learn by Hausa ESL learners as
compared to /u/, /e/, /i:/ etc. which are present in the Hausa sound
inventory. However, the difficulty levels are not enough to predict the
mispronunciations made by the Hausa ESL learners in pronouncing English words.
The mispronunciations are majorly caused by the disparity in the English
pronunciation and spelling of words.
Keywords: Predictive Power, CAH
(Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis), ESL (English Second Language), SLA (Second
Language Acquisition)Pure Vowels, Hierarchy of Difficulty.
1. Introduction
Researches using the
Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis (CAH), for years, were a result of Lado’s
assertions. For Lado, transfer of an item of first language (in learning second
language) is the major problem that needs to be accounted for in second language
acquisition (SLA). He further claimed that, this can both predict and explain
all errors committed by second language learners. Additionally, Lado’s
publication is considered the seminal work of the Contrastive Analysis
Hypothesis.His views were significantly influenced by the writing of Fries
(1945). In Fries writing, he claimed that language teaching materials that are
prepared based on the careful comparison of the scientific descriptions of
first language and second language are the most effective.
CAH is fleshed out and
popularized as a learning theory by Stockwell and Bowen (1965). Their
book, The Sounds of English and Spanish, sets forth hierarchies of
difficulty that attempted to predict which sounds would be easy to acquire and
which sounds would be more difficult. Major (2008, p.65) believes that, “if
prediction is defined as an absolute occurrence or nonoccurrence of phenomena
for all individuals, then [Contrastive Analysis (CA) …] can be easily
falsified. However, if prediction is defined in the probabilistic sense, then
CA is alive and well today”.
The linguistic research
community shifted from transfer-based theories and withdrew from making claims
that mother tongue interference played a strong role in second language
learning.This is due to Selinker’s findings that universals and other “developmental”
factors can also play significant roles in the acquisition of a second language
(Selinker, 1972). For him, they are similar to those that cause errors in first
language learning in infancy. However, a decade later, Andersen (1983) dared to
return transfer to the limelight with his “Transfer to Somewhere” Hypothesis.
This hypothesis “specified [the] conditions under which transfer can and cannot
operate” (Major, 2008, p. 66). The conditions include that; the input from the
second language the learner receives must have a “corresponding structure” that
is (mis-)generalisable to patterns of the first language.
The current study
employs Partor’s (1967) model of Difficulty Prediction. This model can be
applied to any two languages. This gives the possibility of predicting second
language learners’ difficulties in any language with a fair degree of certainty
and objectivity (Prator, 1967). Prator’s model of difficulty prediction is
suitable for both grammatical and phonological structures of languages. The
English and Hausa pure vowels can be grouped into definite levels according to
some common features. Unlike Stockwell, Martin and Bowen’s model of prediction,
Prator (1967) presented six levels of difficulty prediction. The levels are
listed under Analysis in ascending order of difficulty.
While Prator’s
hierarchy of difficulty is familiar to most linguists, there has been little or
no research that empirically investigates the validity of its claims. This is
so particularly in contrastive analysis of the English and Hausa sounds. This
paper contrasts the English and Hausa pure vowels by examining each level of
the Prator’s (1967) hierarchy. The paper also evaluates both its successes and
its shortcomings.
Related
studies
Waya and Kwambehar
(2014) discover that, the dental fricatives /θ/ and /ð/ are missing in the Tiv
language and the Tivs substitute /θ/ with /t/ and /ð/ with /d/. The vowels /ə/
and /æ/ are not in Tiv, therefore, speakers of this language face difficulties
in producing these sounds. They find that /l/ and /r/ are more of allophones in
Tiv. Unlike in English where ‘lice’ and ‘rice’ are different words, ‘lwam’ and
‘rwan’ mean the same in Tiv. Still, no Tiv word ends in either /s/ or /z/,
therefore speakers of this language do not easily pronounce the English words
ending in these sounds. This means that, the Tivs need thorough training to be
able to pronounce the English sounds not found in their language, otherwise
their spoken English would be something different from what they mean. The
study differs from the current study as it did consider pronunciation
difficulties caused by using the English sounds in groups (i.e. words).
Hakim (2012) also finds
that among a few sounds he investigated, the pronunciation of English /d/
and /ð/ was most difficult for Java English
foreign language learners. Similarly, Chan (2009) investigates the
pronunciation problems of advanced Cantonese English second language learners
in Hong Kong. The results show that despite the fact that the participants were
English majors and had studied English for at least thirteen years, they still
had problems with pronouncing English sounds that did not exist in their native
language. Most of the works are concerned with the English sounds that are not
present in the target languages. The works should go beyond this.
Buba and Kaigama’s
(2015) study reveal that English consonant clusters are other aspects that
cause problem to Hausa-speaking learners of English and this is because Hausa
language has no consonant clusters. Out of 450 instances in the pronunciation
of consonant clusters, there were 177 instances of insertions from the
participants and 247 instances showed that there were no insertions while 26
instances showed a totally different pronunciation of the words presented. They
conclude that, whether the occurrence of the problems from both consonant
sounds and consonant clusters were not overwhelming, the fact still remains
that the problems are present.
Mahe and Adegboye (2017)
conduct a research on the interference of Hausa prepositions on English
language use on students of some of selected public and private schools of
Bauchi State and found that, the main causes of errors are incomplete
application of rules, false concept hypothesised and, ignorance of rule
restriction errors such as over-generalization. They conclude that, the type of
error committed by a student is dependent on the school attended. The errors
committed by the private schools students were not as much as the errors
committed by the public school students. The works cited above did not go far
into comparing the native languages with English in order to predict second
language pronunciation problems arising from pronunciation of English words,
instead they restricted the comparison on sounds in isolation. The current
study goes ahead to investigate why Hausa second language learners find it
difficult to pronounce a number of English words even when the English pure
vowels have become part of them.
2. Methodology
The research used an English textbook and
a Hausa textbook in identifying the (dis)similar sounds from both languages for
easy classification into appropriate difficulty level. It also purposively
sampled fifty (50) Hausa speakers learning English in the 300 level of English
and French Department of Umaru Musa Yar’adua University, Katsina. The
population were given a composed story (that contains all the sounds in
contrast) to read while a recorder was used to record the reading aloud of the
students. The students read the story three (3) times and the third reading was
used for data analysis. The author, with the assistance of a senior lecturer,
listened to the third recorded reading of each student. While identifying the
pronunciation of the individual sounds (pure vowels) and the realisation of the
individual words in the story, the author and senior lecturer transcribed
(individually) the recorded speeches of the students. The transcriptions were
later compared and used for final transcription of the recordings.
Ethical Considerations
The researcher informed the research respondents of the
purpose of the study. The researcher also requestedtheir permission
forcollecting data from them which were usedfor thatpurpose.
3.
Data Presentation and Analysis
a. Level 0 – Transfer: No difference
or contrast is present between the two languages in question. In this category
of difficulty prediction, second language learners can simply transfer
(positively) a segmental sound from their native language (Hausa) to the target
language (English). Examples:
1) /I/ or /i/
This short vowel sound is articulated by raising the
front of the tongue nearer to the centre of the teeth. While the lips are
spread, the tongue relaxed in the production of the vowel sound in both English
and Hausa languages. Examples:
English Hausa
sit /sIt/ biri /birii/ (monkey)
bit /bIt/ gishiri /giʃirii/ (salt)
chin /tʃin/ bincike /bincikee/ (investigation)
2) /e/
For the production of this short vowel in both English
and Hausa languages, the front of the teeth touches the lower teeth in a raised
position. The lips are loosely spread and slightly wider apart.
Examples:
English Hausa
bed /bed/ vera /veraa/ (rat)
pretend /prItend/ Rabe /raabe/ (a
proper name)
offend /əfend/ qera /qera/ (construct)
recent /rIsent/ gemu /gemuu/ (bear)
3) /ɔ/
In both English and Hausa languages, the articulation
of the short vowel sound /ɔ/ is done with wide jaws and slight open lip
rounding. No contact is made between the tongue and the upper molars.
Examples:
English Hausa
lot /lɔt/ loma /loma/ (mouthful)
knot /nɔt/ tona /tonaa/ (dig)
boss /bɔs/ qona /qona/ (burn)
fond /fɔnd/ soya /soja/ (fry)
lost /lɔst/ so /so/ (love)
4) /ʊ/
This short vowel sound is produced with the tongue
nearer to the centre of the oral cavity. The tongue is laxed while the lips are
closely but loosely rounded in both English and Hausa languages.
Examples:
English Hausa
put /pʊt/ wuqa /wuqaa/ (knife)
sugar /ʃʊgə/ lura /lura/ (become aware)
butcher /bʊtʃə/ tuntuva /tuntuvaa/
(inquire)
5) /i:/ and /ii/
The English /i:/ and the Hausa /ii/ are both long vowel
sounds differentiated only by phonetic symbols. This long vowel sound is
produced, in both languages, by raising the front of the tongue behind the
front of the lower teeth. The lips are spread with the tongue tensed and the
rims making contact with the upper molars.
Examples:
English Hausa
vaccine /væksi:n/ biki /bikii/
(marriage or ceremony)
police /pəli:s/ rukuni /rukunii/
(pillar)
prestige /presti:ʒ/ tunani /tunaanii/
(thought)
6) /a:/ and /aa/
The English /a:/ and the Hausa /aa/ have similar
phonetic features. The sound is a long vowel and is produced, in both
languages, with jaws considerably separated and the lips neutrally open. There
is no contact with the upper molars.
Examples:
English Hausa
pass /pa:s/ taro /taaro/ (gathering)
last /la:st/ rago /raago/ (ram)
dance /da:ns/ taso /taaso/ (stand up)
brand /bra:nd/ rame /raame/ (become thin)
7) /ɔ:/ and /oo/
The English /ɔ:/ and the Hausa /oo/ are long vowels and
have similar phonetic features differentiated only in terms of phonetic symbol.
In both languages, the long vowel sound is produced with the tongue raised high
and the lips half rounded. There is no contact between the tongue and the upper
molars.
Examples:
English Hausa
glory /glɔ:rI/ rabo /raboo/ (share
of something)
story /stɔ:ri/ tona /toona/ (reveal)
8) /u:/ and /uu/
The English /u:/ and the Hausa /uu/ are both long and
similar phonetically though the phonetic symbols differ. In both languages, the
sound is articulated with the tongue raised high in the mouth. The tongue is
tensed while the lips are closely rounded.
Examples:
English Hausa
who /hu:/ tuba /tuubaa/ (repentance)
do /du:/ lura /luuraa/ (become aware
of)
too /tu:/ mu /mu:/ (we)
b. Level 2 – Under-differentiation: In
this level, a segmental phoneme in the native language (Hausa language) is
absent in the target language (English language). Examples: No comparison found.
c. Level 3 – Reinterpretation: Here,
a segmental sound that exists in the native language (Hausa language) is given
a new shape or distribution in the target language (English language). Examples:
1. /i:/, /a:/ or /aa/, /oo/ or /ɔ:/ and /uu/ or /u:/
Although the long vowels /i:/, /ɔ:/ and /u:/ occur only
in open syllables in the Hausa language as in fara /ɸaraa/ (white),
tona /toonaa/ (reveal/disclose), tuba /tuubaa/
(repentance), they (the long vowels) can occur in closed-syllables in the
English language as in court /kɔ:t/, caught /kɔ:t/, part /pa:t/ match
ma:tʃ/, teach /ti:tʃ/, receive /rIsi:v/, food /fu:d/, room
/ru:m/.
2. /i:/
The long vowel /i:/ also takes different distributions
in the English language. These distributions include: ‘ee’, ‘e’, ‘ie’, ‘ea’,
‘ei’, ‘ey’, ‘uay’, ‘i', ‘oe’, ‘ui’. Examples: feed /fi:d/, precede
/prIsi:d/, belief /bIli:f/, beat /bi:t/, conceive /kənsi:v/,
key /ki:/, machine /mæʃi:n/, foetus /fi:təs/, suite
/swi:t/.
3. /I/
The short counterpart of /i:/, that is /I/, takes
different distributions in the English language as well. The vowel sound can be
represented by ‘y’, ‘e’, ‘ie’, ‘a’, ‘ay’, ‘ei’, ‘ui’, ‘ea’ ‘oe’, ‘o’, ‘ey’,
‘ai’and ‘ee’. Examples: city /siti/, pretty /prIti/,
wanted /wɔntId/, marries /mærIs/, courage /kʌrIdʒ/, manage
/mænIdʒ/, build /bIld/, guinea /gInI/, Monday /mʌndi/,
Friday /fraidi/, forfeit /fɔ:fit/, business
/bizines/, minute /minit/, granite /grænit/, opposite /ɔpəzit/, oesophagus
/isɔfəgəs/, women /wimin/, money /mʌni/, captain
/kæptin/, coffee /kɔfi/.
4. /e/
In the English language, the vowel sound /e/ also takes
distributions different from the usual distribution in both languages where it
is represented by ‘e’. In English language, /e/ can also be represented by ‘ea’
as in head /hed/, ‘a’ as in many /meni/, ‘ai’ as in said
/sed/, ‘eo’ as in leopard /lepəd/, ‘ue’ as in guess /ges/, ‘ieu’
as in lieutenant /leftenənt/, and ‘ei’ as in leisure /leʒə/.
5. /a:/
The long vowel /a:/ as well takes different
distributions in the English language. The vowel sound can be represented by
‘ar’, ‘aar’, ‘ear’, ‘er’, ‘al’, ‘au’, ‘ua’, ‘uar’ and ‘ior’. Examples: part/pa:t/,
seminar /semina:/, heart /ha:t/, sergeant /sa:dʒent/,
half /ha:f/, aunt /a:nt/, laugh /la:f/, guavegwa:və/,
guard /ga:d/, abattoir /æbətwa:/.
6. /ɔ/
Similarly, the short vowel /ɔ/ takes distributions in
the English language different from and in addition to its usual distribution
in both languages. The vowel is also represented, in English, by ‘a’, ‘ow’,
‘ou’, ‘au’, ‘and ‘e’. Examples: swan /swɔn/, wander /wɔndə/, knowledge
/nɔlidʒ/, acknowledge /əknɔlidʒ/, cough /kɔf/, because
/bikɔz/, entrepreneur /ɔntrəprənɜ:/, entourage /ɔntʊra:ʒ/.
7. /ɔ:/
Like its short counterpart in the English language, the
long vowel /ɔ:/ takes distributions different from its usual distribution in
both languages. It can also be represented in the English language by ‘or’ as
in torch /tɔ:tʃ/, horn /hɔ:n/, ‘aw’ as in raw /rɔ:/, awful
/ɔ:fəl/, ‘ough’ as in bought /bɔ:t/, thought /θɔ:t/, ‘au’ as in pause
/pɔ:z/, fraud /frɔ:d/, ‘augh’ as in taught /tɔ:t/, caught
/kɔ:t/, ‘a’ as in wall /wɔ:l/, call /kɔ:l/, ‘al’ as in stalk
/stɔ:k/, talk /tɔ:k/, ‘ar’ as in ward /wɔ:d/, swarm /swɔ:m/,
‘o’ as in glory /glɔ:ri/, choral /kɔ:rəl/, ‘ore’ as in before /bifɔ:/,
core /kɔ:/, ‘oar’ as in board /bɔ:d/, coarse /kɔ:s/,
‘oor’ as in floor /flɔ:/, and ‘our’ as in court /kɔ:t/, mourn
/mɔ:n/.
8. /ʊ/
Unlike in Hausa, the short vowel /ʊ/ takes different
distributions in the English language because it can be represented by
different letters such as ‘o’, as in wolf /wʊlf/, woman /wʊmən/,
‘oo’ as in wood /wʊd/, stood /stʊd/, ‘ou’ as in courier /kʊriə/,
and ‘oul’ as in could /kʊd/, would /wʊd/.
9. /u:/
Like its short counterpart, in the English language the
long vowel sound /u:/ is represented by different letters, hence, it takes
distributions different from and in addition to that (its distribution) in the
Hausa language. In the English language, /u:/ can be represented by ‘oo’ as in
food /fu:d/, school /sku:l/, ‘o’ as in tomb /tu:m/, move
/mu:v/, ‘ou’ as in group /gru:p/, wound /wu:nd/, ‘ew’ as in chew /tʃu:/,
threw /θru:/, ‘ui’ as in juice /dʒu:s/, sluice
/slu:s/, ‘ewe’ as in ewe /ju:/, ‘iew’ as in view /vju:/,
‘eau’ as in beauty /bju:ti/, ‘oe’ as in shoes /ʃu:/, canoe /kænu:/,
‘ough’ as in through /θru:/, ‘eu’ as in feud /fju:d/, neutral
/nju:trəl/, ‘ueue’ as in queue /kju:/, ‘ue’ as in due /dju:/,
blue /blu:/, ‘oeu’ as in manoeuver /mənu:və/, ‘u’ as in June
/dʒu:n/, rule /ru:l/, duty /dju:ti/.
d. Level 4 – Over-differentiation: A
new sound or phoneme entirely, bearing little if any similarity to the native
language (Hausa language) sound, must be learned. See instances below:
10. /æ/
The English central vowel /æ/ is missing in the Hausa
sound inventory. In the production of this sound, the mouth is more open than
in the articulation of /e/. The front of the tongue is raised and the rims make
slight contact with the back upper molars. Examples: bat /bæt/, sat
/sæt/, hand /hænd/, damn /dæm/, marry /mæri/, panic
/pænIk/, plaque /plæk/, packet /pækIt/, stamp
/stæmp/ album /ælbəm/, chasm /kæziəm/, glacier /glæʃiə/.
11. /ʌ/
The English /ʌ/ is not available in the Hausa sound
system. This is a short vowel sound which is articulated with jaws considerably
separated and the lips neutrally open. There is no contact with the upper
molars. Examples: sun /sʌn/, fundamental /fʌndəmentl/, function
/fʌŋkʃən/, cut /kʌt/, son sʌn/, onions /ʌnjənz/ done
/dʌn/, oven /ʌvən/, among /əmʌŋ/, nothing /nʌθiŋ/, brother
/brʌðə/, country /kʌntri/, young /jʌŋ/, couple /kʌpl/, flourish
/flʌrIʃ/, cousin /kʌzn/, courage /kʌridʒ/.
12. /ɜ:/
This is a long vowel sound which is articulated with
the central part of the tongue raised. The lips are neutrally spread and no
firm contact is made between the tongue and the upper molars. This vowel sound
is absent in the Hausa sound inventory. Examples: girl /gɜ:l/, firm
/fɜ:m/, dirt /dɜ:t/, bird /bɜ:d/, third /θɜ:d/, serve
/sɜ:v/, deserve /dIzɜ:v/, term /tɜ:m/, refer /rIfɜ:/,
heard /hɜ:d/, earth /ɜ:θ/, rehearse /rIhɜ:s/, nurse
/nɜ:s/, return /rItɜ:n/, spur /spɜ:/, occur /ʌkɜ:/, err /ɜ:/,
purr /pɜ:/, word /wɜ:/, worse /wɜ:s/, worship
/wɜ:ʃIp/, journey /dʒɜ:ni/, courtesy /kɜ:təsi/, colonel /kɜ:nl/,
were /wɜ:/, milieu /milɜ:/.
13. /ə/
This is a weak vowel sound that occurs in an unstressed
syllable. It is used to represent unaccented (unstressed) syllables in English
language. This sound which is referred to as the schwa sound is absent in the
Hausa sound system. In articulating the sound, the tongue is in a central
position and the lip in neutral position. Examples: mother /mʌðə/,
leather /leðə/, manager /mænIdʒə/, superman
/su:pəmæn/, doctor /dɔktə/, factor /fæktə/, minor /mainə/,
supervisor /su:pəvaizə/, famous /feIməs/, rumour /ru:mə/,
honour /ɔnə/, conscious /kɔnʃəs/, precious /preiʃəs/,
open /əʊpən/, happen /hæpən/, about /əbaʊt/, photography
/fətɔgrəfi/, steward /stju:wəd/, senior /si:njə/, surgeon
/sɜ:dʒən/, support /səpɔ:t/, metre /mi:tə/, survive
/səvaiv/, surprise /səpraIs/.
Level 5 – Split: In this last level
of the hierarchy of difficulty, a particular sound in the native language
(Hausa language) becomes two or more in the target language (English language),
requiring the learner to make a new distinction. Examples: No comparison found.
Specific Findings
1. The English and
Hausa pure vowels can only be contrasted in four difficulty levels of Prator’s
hierarchy. No distribution or comparison can be made at level 2 –
underdifferentiation and level 5 – split as indicated above.
2. The predictive
power predicts some level of difficulty for Hausa second language learners of
English especially at level 4 – over-differentiation where English pure vowels
are absent in the Hausa sound inventory. Most of the sounds that fall under
this level are difficult for the Hausa learners of English to pronounce.
3. The ability of
the Prator’s hierarchy levels to allow for identification of the
dis(similarities) of individual sounds of both languages is not enough to
proffer solutions to pronunciation problems made by the Hausa second language
learners of English. Even with the ability of the second language learners to
realising English sounds correctly, there are still mispronunciations of some
words in the story. This is due to the fact that the spelling system of the two
languages differs. While Hausa is a phonetic language (i.e. its spelling
suggests the pronunciation of its words), English is not (i.e. its spelling and
pronunciation does not always have one-to-one correspondences) due to the
following reasons:
i. In English, a
sound can be represented by a number of letters e.g ‘o’, ‘e’, ‘i', ‘u’, ‘ui’
etc. can be used to represent the sound /i/ as in women, socket,
bid, minute, and build respectively.
ii. An English letter, unlike that of Hausa, can
represent different sounds e.g the letter ‘t’ can represent /t/, /tS/, /S/, as
in teacher, lecture, and nation respectively.
4. Conclusion
The paper highlighted the importance of contrastive
analysis and the void it fills so as to contribute its quota to scholarship in
the field. The study contrasted the English and Hausa pure vowels using
Prator’s (1967) method of difficulty prediction and presented some areas of
difficulty for Hausa learners using English pure vowels. However, major
percentage of the difficulty areas cannot be predicted by the model of
difficulty prediction in application. In fact, the level of difficulty
prediction lacks the ability to predict pronunciation problems for Hausa L2 of
English arising from use of English pure vowels in groups (words).Instead,the
levels can only capture comparison of individual sounds as well as present
possible or rather probable difficulty areas arising from pronunciation of the
sounds in isolation.
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