Consequences of Unqualified Teachers on English Language Acquisition in Secondary Schools in Idah, Kogi State, Nigeria

This article is published in AL-QALAM Journal of Languages and Literary Studies, Vol. 1, Issue 1, December 2025 (A Publication of the Department of English and Literature, Federal University Gusau, Zamfara State, Nigeria)

CONSEQUENCES OF UNQUALIFIED TEACHERS ON ENGLISH LANGUAGE ACQUISITION IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS IN IDAH, KOGI STATE, NIGERIA

*Egu, Francis Attah & Egu, Enyo-Ojo Praise

Department of Languages and Communication, School of General Studies, Federal Polytechnic of Oil & Gas Bonny, Rivers State, Nigeria

Corresponding Author’s Email and Phone No: francis.egu@fedpolybonny.edu.ng egu4ran6@gmail.com +2348064640406

Abstract

This study investigates the impact of unqualified teachers on English language education in secondary schools in Idah Local Government Area, Kogi State, Nigeria. The research aimed to identify the principal causes of this prevalence, examine its consequences on student learning outcomes, and analyse the perception gap between teachers and students. A descriptive survey design was employed, with data collected via questionnaires from a purposive sample of 120 respondents across six schools. With a 93% response rate (112 questionnaires analysed), findings were interpreted using the theoretical perspectives of Bandura's Social Cognitive Theory and Vygotsky's Sociocultural Theory. Results indicate that key causes of unqualified teaching include inadequate remuneration (94.1% of teachers agreed), a shortage of qualified personnel (87.2% of students agreed), and a lack of professional development (85.3% of teachers agreed). Consequently, students experience poor academic performance (83.3% of students agreed), hindered comprehension (91%), and an inability to speak English fluently (87.2%). A critical finding is the significant perception gap: students reported the consequences on their speaking skills more acutely (e.g., 92.3% cited ineffective speaking), while teachers were more focused on systemic causes like low pay. The study concludes that the prevalence of unqualified teachers critically undermines English language acquisition by failing to provide competent models and scaffolding, a failure experienced differently by each stakeholder group. Recommendations include implementing competitive salary structures, enhancing teacher training and mentorship programmes, and enforcing rigorous hiring audits tailored to the Idah LGA context.

Keywords: unqualified teachers, English language education, educational reform, Nigeria, Social Cognitive Theory, Sociocultural Theory

Introduction

The quality of an education system is fundamentally predicated on the quality of its teachers (Darling-Hammond, 2017). In Nigeria, the English language holds a position of unique importance, serving not only as a core subject but also as the official medium of instruction and a critical determinant of academic and socio-economic mobility (Adeosun, 2021). Consequently, the competence of English teachers is paramount. However, the Nigerian educational landscape, particularly in rural areas, is beleaguered by the pervasive challenge of unqualified teachers in classrooms (Adeniji & Omale, 2020).

This issue is acutely manifested in Idah Local Government Area (LGA) of Kogi State. A growing body of evidence correlates the presence of unqualified teachers with deficient pedagogical practices and poor student learning outcomes (Ganimian & Murnane, 2016; Kedir, 2018). Unqualified teachers often lack the requisite pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) to deconstruct complex linguistic concepts, leading to ineffective instruction (Shulman, 1987). When compounded by systemic issues such as inadequate remuneration, insufficient training, and the misassignment of teachers to subjects outside their specialism, the efficacy of English language teaching and learning is severely compromised (Ogunniyi, 2014; World Bank, 2018).

While the problem is broadly acknowledged, there is a pressing need for localised, empirical studies that dissect its specific aetiologies and manifestations in contexts like Idah to inform targeted interventions. This study is therefore motivated by the need to critically examine the causes and consequences of unqualified teachers on the teaching and learning of English in secondary schools in Idah LGA.

Objectives of the Study

This study is guided by the following specific objectives:

1. To identify the principal causes leading to the prevalence of unqualified teachers of English in secondary schools within Idah Local Government Area.

2. To investigate the specific consequences of unqualified English teachers on students' language acquisition outcomes, including academic performance, comprehension, and speaking fluency.

3. To analyse the perception gap between teachers and students regarding the causes and consequences of unqualified English teaching.

Research Questions

To achieve the stated objectives, this study seeks to answer the following research questions:

1. What are the primary factors contributing to the presence of unqualified teachers in the English language classrooms of secondary schools in Idah LGA?

2. What are the perceived effects of unqualified English teachers on students' academic performance, comprehension, and spoken English proficiency?

3. How do the perceptions of teachers and students differ regarding the causes and consequences of unqualified English teaching?

Literature Review

The scholarly discourse unequivocally establishes a strong, positive correlation between teacher qualification and student achievement. Darling-Hammond (2017) asserts that teacher expertise, encompassing deep subject matter knowledge and sophisticated pedagogical skills, is one of the most significant school-level factors influencing student success. In language education, teachers with strong proficiency and PCK are better equipped to foster communicative competence (Borg, 2018). Conversely, unqualified teachers are linked to poor student performance, a challenge disproportionately affecting rural regions due to resource allocation disparities (UNESCO, 2020; Mkpa et al., 2018).

Within Nigeria, systemic failures exacerbate this issue. Inadequate teacher preparation programmes, poor remuneration, and non-competitive working conditions contribute to a chronic shortage of qualified professionals (Akpan & Udoudo, 2019; Federal Ministry of Education, 2019). This often forces schools to hire unqualified personnel or assign teachers outside their specialism, diluting instructional quality (Ogunniyi, 2014). The consequences are profound, resulting in students' struggles with fundamental language skills - grammar, reading, writing, and speaking - which are essential for academic and professional advancement (Adeyemi, 2016).

Despite this knowledge, a critical gap remains: the lack of in-depth, theoretically-grounded investigations into the mechanisms through which unqualified teachers impact learning in specific local government areas like Idah. This study seeks to fill this gap by providing a localised analysis framed within Bandura's Social Cognitive Theory and Vygotsky's Sociocultural Theory.

Theoretical Framework

This study is guided by two complementary theoretical frameworks that elucidate the process of learning and the pivotal role of the teacher.

Social Cognitive Theory

Refined from its original conception (Bandura, 1977), Social Cognitive Theory posits that learning occurs within a social context through observation, imitation, and modelling (Bandura, 2018). The theory emphasises vicarious learning and self-efficacy. In the language classroom, the teacher serves as the primary model for linguistic behaviour. An unqualified teacher, demonstrating incorrect grammar, poor pronunciation, and limited vocabulary, provides a deficient model for students to imitate (Schunk & DiBenedetto, 2020). This lack of a proficient model impedes the acquisition of standard English and can diminish students' self-efficacy. This study applies this theory to analyse how unqualified teachers fail to fulfil this modelling function.

 Sociocultural Theory (Vygotsky)

Vygotsky's (1978) Sociocultural Theory contends that social interaction is the foundational catalyst for cognitive development. Central to this theory are the concepts of the "More Knowledgeable Other" (MKO) and the "Zone of Proximal Development" (ZPD). The MKO, typically the teacher, provides guidance and support ("scaffolding") to help the learner achieve tasks they cannot accomplish independently, thus navigating the ZPD. An unqualified English teacher may lack the expertise to accurately diagnose a student's ZPD or provide the appropriate, incremental scaffolding needed to develop language skills, such as constructing a complex sentence or formulating an argument (Lantolf et al., 2018). This failure to act as a competent MKO can arrest students' linguistic and cognitive development. This study utilizes this lens to explore how the absence of qualified MKOs in Idah’s classrooms stymies English language acquisition.

 

Methodology

Research Design

A descriptive survey research design was adopted for this study. This design is appropriate as it allows for the collection of quantifiable data from a sample population to describe specific characteristics or phenomena (Creswell & Creswell, 2018).

Population and Sample

The study population comprised 8,803 individuals (8,569 students and 234 teachers) from 24 public and private secondary schools in Idah LGA (source: Association of Secondary School Teachers, Idah Branch). A sample of 120 respondents (84 students and 36 teachers) from six schools was selected using a purposive sampling technique. The schools were selected to ensure representation across different types (public/private) and levels (junior/senior secondary). While the sample size is a small fraction of the total population, it was deemed adequate for a focused, in-depth descriptive study of the targeted phenomenon (Saunders et al., 2019). The use of purposive sampling is acknowledged as a limitation, as it may introduce selection bias and affect the generalisability of findings; however, it was justified for targeting information-rich cases relevant to the research problem (Etikan et al., 2016).

Instrument and Validation

Data were collected using the "Consequences of Unqualified English Teachers Questionnaire (CUETTLESS)," a self-designed instrument. The questionnaire was divided into two sections: Section A collected demographic data, and Section B contained two clusters of items aligned with the research questions, using a 4-point Likert scale (Strongly Agree=4, Agree=3, Disagree=2, Strongly Disagree=1). The instrument was subjected to face and content validation by three experts from the Faculty of Education, Prince Abubakar Audu University, Anyigba, Kogi State, Nigeria. Their feedback, which primarily involved clarifying ambiguous items, simplifying language, and ensuring content relevance, was incorporated into the final instrument.

Reliability and Data Analysis

To ensure internal consistency, a pilot test was conducted with 20 teachers and students from the neighbouring Igalamela/Odolu LGA, which shares similar socio-educational characteristics with Idah. The analysis yielded a Cronbach's alpha reliability coefficient of 0.72, which is considered acceptable for research in social sciences (Taber, 2018). 112 questionnaires distributed were retrieved, resulting in a 93% response rate. Data were analysed using descriptive statistics (frequency counts and percentages). In addition to frequencies and percentages, the standard deviation (SD) was calculated for each Likert-scale item to measure the dispersion of responses. A lower SD indicates a higher level of consensus among respondents, while a higher SD suggests greater variability in opinions. A 40% agreement threshold (combining 'Agree' and 'Strongly Agree' responses) was set as the benchmark for acceptance. This conservative cut-off point was chosen to ensure that only issues with a clear and substantial consensus among respondents were considered significant findings.

Results and Analysis

Research Question 1: What are the primary factors contributing to the presence of unqualified teachers in the English language classrooms of secondary schools in Idah LGA?

Table 1: Percentage Responses of Participants on the Causes of Unqualified Teachers in the Teaching and Learning of English

S/N	Item	Teachers (N=34)				Students (N=78)
		F	%	DEC	SD	F	%	DEC	SD
1	Teachers are not well paid in schools.	32	94.1	Agreed	0.35	65	83.3	Agreed	0.65
2	There are not enough qualified teachers of English.	28	82.4	Agreed	0.61	68	87.2	Agreed	0.48
3	Teachers' qualifications are not well tested before employment.	25	73.5	Agreed	0.79	63	80.8	Agreed	0.58
4	There are no seminars or workshops for teachers.	29	85.3	Agreed	0.52	62	79.5	Agreed	0.62
5	Teachers are given more than their subject area to teach.	29	85.3	Agreed	0.49	63	80.8	Agreed	0.55
6	Inadequate materials are given to teachers in schools.	30	88.2	Agreed	0.41	74	94.9	Agreed	0.28

Note. DEC = Decision; F = Frequency; SD = Standard Deviation

As shown in Table 1, an overwhelming majority of teachers (94.1%) and students (83.3%) identified low salaries as a primary cause. The low standard deviation for teachers (SD=0.35) indicates a very high level of consensus on this issue. Furthermore, a significant shortage of qualified English teachers was acknowledged by 82.4% of teachers and 87.2% of students. The lack of professional development opportunities was highlighted by 85.3% of teachers. Notably, the item on inadequate materials received the strongest consensus from students (94.9%, SD=0.28), suggesting near-unanimity on the lack of teaching resources. The 40% benchmark was comfortably exceeded by all items, confirming their collective significance.

Graph 1: Causes of Unqualified Teachers of English

Graph 1 shows that whilst both groups identify systemic failures, their primary concerns differ. Teachers demonstrate the strongest consensus on inadequate remuneration as the fundamental issue, whereas students show near-unanimity on the lack of teaching materials as the most palpable barrier to their learning.

 

7.2 Research Question 2: What are the consequences of unqualified teachers of English on students' academic performance, comprehension, and spoken English proficiency?

Table 2: Percentage Responses of Respondents on the Consequences of Unqualified Teachers of English

S/N	Item	Teachers (N=34)				Students (N=78)
		F	%	DEC	SD	F	%	DEC	SD
7	Students perform poorly in English.	24	70.6	Agreed	0.82	65	83.3	Agreed	0.51
8	Vernacular is often used in schools compared to English.	27	79.4	Agreed	0.58	61	78.2	Agreed	0.61
9	Students cannot speak English fluently in schools.	25	73.5	Agreed	0.74	68	87.2	Agreed	0.43
10	Unqualified teachers hinder students' understanding of English.	29	85.3	Agreed	0.48	71	91	Agreed	0.32
11	Mass failure in external English examinations is caused by these teachers.	29	85.3	Agreed	0.45	64	82.1	Agreed	0.53
12	Ineffective speaking of English is due to unqualified teachers.	26	76.5	Agreed	0.63	72	92.3	Agreed	0.29

Note. DEC = Decision; F = Frequency; SD = Standard Deviation

Table 2 outlines the severe consequences of unqualified teaching. A striking 91% of students agreed that unqualified teachers hinder their understanding of English, a view held with strong consensus (SD=0.32). Furthermore, 87.2% of students and 73.5% of teachers agreed that students cannot speak English fluently. The high percentage of respondents noting mass failure in external examinations (85.3% of teachers, 82.1% of students) aligns with the theoretical premise that without a qualified teacher to provide guidance, students cannot effectively progress. The item on ineffective speaking received the strongest student consensus (92.3%, SD=0.29), indicating students are acutely aware of this deficiency.

Graph 2: Consequences of Unqualified Teachers of English

Graph 2 reveals that students report more severe impacts, particularly regarding their practical language skills. Students show an overwhelming consensus that unqualified teachers lead to ineffective speaking and hindered comprehension, feelings that are less acutely perceived by their teachers.

7.3 Research Question 3: How do the perceptions of teachers and students differ regarding the causes and consequences of unqualified English teaching?

While the previous sections established a strong consensus on the existence of key problems, this research question seeks to uncover a more nuanced layer of the issue: the differential perception of these problems between teachers and students. To answer this, the data from Tables 1 and 2 were re-analysed by calculating the percentage point difference between student and teacher agreement rates for each item

Graph 3: Percentage Point Difference (Student % Agreement - Teacher % Agreement)

7.3.1 Interpretation of the Percentage Point Difference

The analysis of percentage point differences reveals a compelling and subtle "perception gap" between students and teachers, revealing not only what the problems are, but how they are prioritised and experienced differently by each group.

A clear pattern emerges where students report feeling the consequences of unqualified teaching more severely than their teachers perceive. The most significant gaps are found in the realm of practical language skills. The largest positive difference of +15.8 percentage points for "ineffective speaking skills," coupled with a +13.7 point gap for the "inability to speak English fluently," indicates a profound disconnect. Students are living the daily reality of their communicative inadequacy, a failure that feels immediate and personal. Teachers, whilst acknowledging the problem, may not fully grasp the depth of student frustration and the extent of the skill deficit, perhaps being more focused on curricular coverage than individual oral proficiency. This is further supported by the +12.7 point gap on "poor student performance," suggesting students are more pessimistic about their overall academic outcomes in English than their teachers are.

Conversely, the data show that teachers are more acutely aware of certain systemic and root causes that underpin the educational crisis. The most substantial negative difference of -10.8 percentage points on "inadequate remuneration" powerfully underscores that low pay is a far more pressing and personal concern for teachers. This is a direct reflection of their professional lived experience. Similarly, the negative gaps on the "lack of professional development" (-5.8 points) and teachers being assigned outside their specialism (-4.5 points) highlight that teachers are more cognisant of these institutional failings, areas that students would naturally be less aware of. Interestingly, students now report stronger agreement on other systemic issues, such as the shortage of qualified teachers (+4.8 points) and inadequate materials (+6.7 points), indicating they are highly aware of the resource deficits in their schools.

Finally, the issues with minimal differences tell a story of shared, undeniable realities. The near-consensus on the "prevalent use of vernacular" (-1.2 points) and "mass failure in examinations" (-3.2 points) indicates that these are overt, observable crises that neither group can ignore. Both teachers and students are equally immersed in a classroom environment where English is often side-lined and where the evidence of failure is starkly visible in examination results, creating a rare but critical area of unified perspective on the depth of the problem.

Discussion

The findings of this study, enhanced by the analysis of response dispersion, paint a detailed picture of a dysfunctional cycle within the educational ecosystem of Idah LGA. The identified causes - profoundly low pay, a critical scarcity of qualified applicants, and a dearth of in-service training - collectively create an environment where underqualified individuals are tasked with the complex responsibility of teaching English. The consequences, as illuminated by our theoretical frameworks, are both predictable and severe.

The analysis is strengthened by the measure of response dispersion. The very low standard deviations on key items for students, such as ineffective speaking (92.3%, SD=0.29) and hindered understanding (91%, SD=0.32), demonstrate that these are not just majority views but are held with remarkable consistency across the student body. This robust consensus underscores the depth of the learning crisis. The near-unanimous agreement from teachers on low salaries (94.1%, SD=0.35) confirms it as a primary systemic driver. Conversely, the higher standard deviation among teachers on student performance (70.6%, SD=0.82) hints at more varied perceptions of academic outcomes, potentially influenced by factors teachers deem beyond their direct control.

Viewing the outcomes through a theoretical lens provides a mechanistic understanding of this breakdown. The consequence of "hindered understanding" is a direct manifestation of failed scaffolding, as per Vygotsky's (1978) Sociocultural Theory. Unqualified teachers, lacking PCK, are ill-equipped to diagnose the ZPD of their students or provide the structured, incremental support needed to master complex linguistic concepts. Similarly, the students' inability to speak fluently, a point of strong consensus, exemplifies the failure of observational learning described by Bandura (2018). Without a competent linguistic model in the classroom, students are deprived of a proficient exemplar to imitate, leading directly to the internalisation of errors. The heavy reliance on the vernacular, reported by 79.4% of teachers, is both a cause and a symptom of this deficient modelling, further impoverishing the English-language environment necessary for acquisition.

In summary, the analysis of percentage point differences reveals a critical narrative: students feel the consequences in the classroom - particularly their inability to speak fluently - more severely than teachers observe. Conversely, teachers are more focused on the systemic causes - remuneration and professional development - that create the problem in the first place. This 'perception gap' underscores that while both groups agree on the core issues, their lived experiences frame the crisis differently. For students, the crisis is one of lost opportunity and skill; for teachers, it is one of systemic neglect and a lack of support

This study, therefore, successfully bridges abstract educational theory with local reality. It demonstrates quantitatively and qualitatively that the theoretical concepts of "modelling" and "scaffolding" are not merely academic constructs but are operational necessities. Their absence in classrooms in Idah, as powerfully quantified by high agreement percentages and low standard deviations on critical issues, translates directly into the tangible educational failures observed: mass examination failure, poor communication skills, and severely limited future opportunities for students.

Conclusion and Recommendations

This study concludes that the teaching and learning of English in Idah LGA are critically impaired by the prevalence of unqualified teachers, a problem driven by systemic issues of non-competitive remuneration, a critical shortage of qualified personnel, and insufficient professional support structures. The consequences, analysed through the theoretical perspectives of Social Cognitive and Sociocultural Theories, are profound, leading to a breakdown in the fundamental processes of language acquisition - observation and guided learning - which in turn limits students' academic achievement and future socio-economic prospects.

Recommendations

To remediate these challenges, the following context-specific, actionable recommendations are proposed:

1. For Kogi State Government: Institute a Rural Teacher Incentive Scheme specifically for LGAs like Idah, offering targeted financial incentives such as housing allowances, hardship postings, and performance-based bonuses to attract and retain qualified English teachers.

2. For the Idah LGA Education Authority: Establish a mandatory, localised mentorship programme. This programme should pair unqualified and underqualified teachers with master teachers from within the LEA or partner institutions for structured, weekly coaching and classroom observation sessions focused on practical pedagogical skills.

3. For School Administrators: Conduct annual teaching-audits and subject-specialisation reviews to ensure teachers are deployed strictly within their certified subject areas. Furthermore, organise quarterly, school-based micro-workshops focused on addressing common teaching challenges identified in the audit.

Suggestions for Further Research

Future studies should employ a mixed-methods approach to provide richer, qualitative insights into the lived experiences and specific pedagogical challenges faced by unqualified teachers. Longitudinal research is also recommended to quantitatively evaluate the impact of the recommended interventions, such as mentorship programs, on both teacher efficacy and student learning outcomes in English language acquisition within Idah LGA and similar contexts.

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