Citation: Adamu Ibrahim MALUMFASHI (2022). Is Wasan Marafa a Propaganda Play?. Yobe Journal of Language, Literature and Culture (YOJOLLAC), Vol. 10, Number 1. Department of African Languages and Linguistics, Yobe State University, Damaturu, Nigeria. ISSN 2449-0660
IS WASAN MARAFA A PROPAGANDA PLAY?
By
Adamu Ibrahim MALUMFASHI
Abstract
This paper is a critique of Aminu’s 1991,
opinion on the play Wasan Marafa titled “Enlightenment and propaganda as themes
in Wasan Marafa”. The paper is of the view that it is an error to regard the
play as propaganda material, based on the criteria for assessing propaganda
established by Ross Sheryl Tuttle, a specialist on the subject. This paper
started with the major point. It provided various definitions of the term
propaganda, its origin, and of course the model for analyzing it. The main body
of the paper destroys any argument portraying the play as a propaganda text.
The conclusion confirms that Wasan Marafa is a play designed to enlighten the
readers on some basic issues on hygiene in particular and cleanliness in
general. It is a wake-up call to reject fake and dangerous medicines and their
promoters.
Introduction
Hamilton
(1921, p. x) as quoted by Oladimeji (2008, p. 37) described propaganda as:
“Inverted patriotism (that) draws nourishment from the sins of the enemy. If
there are no sins, invent them; the aim is to make the enemy appear so great a
monster that forfeits the right of a human being”.
Also, the Institute for Propaganda Analysis.
sees propaganda as (1938, p.4): “An expression of opinion or action by
individuals, or deliberately designed to influence the opinions and actions of
other individuals or groups with reference to a predetermined end”. on the
other hand, Ezento (1940, p. 6-7), calls propaganda as “one form of activated
ideology”. He went on to regard it as “total falsehood on the one hand and on
the other a totally valid depiction of reality or truth.” Another similar
observation comes from Barlett (1940, p. 6) who calls propaganda:
An attempt to influence public opinion and
conduct especially social opinion and conduct in such a manner that the persons
who adopt the opinions and behaviours do so without themselves making any
definite search for reasons.
Hummel
and Huntress’s definition on the other hand is brief and precise which regards
propaganda as simply (1945, p. 2) “any attempt to persuade anyone of any
belief.” Lee expressed the same sentiment in catchy language when he says
(1953, p. 18) that propaganda is “an expression overtly set forth or covertly
implied in order to influence the attitudes and through the attitudes the
opinions and action of a public.”
Bentley
and others (1991, p. 111) see propaganda as “the extreme instance of
didacticism”. But he was quick to admit that “the borderline between the
extreme and the non-extreme would be impossible to draw as for that matter
would the borderline between the didactic and the non-didactic”. The art he
admitted “may be held to teach something” But as to when it is positively
“didactic”, the answer will differ. He said on these competent judges will
differ.
Nelson’s
definition is slightly different from the opinions expressed above as he calls
propaganda: “Communication aimed at influencing the attitude of a community
towards some cause…. Primarily in order to influence its audience. Propaganda
often presents facts selectively (thus lying by omission)”. Propaganda
according to the above definition is meant to influence emotions, attitudes, or
opinions, through the controlled transmission of the sided message which may or
may not be true.
But,
maybe for the first time, a broader more encompassing look at the term was done
when Resto considered propaganda as (2001, p. 5) “mass suggestion” or
“influence through the use of symbols and the psychology of the individuals”.
He considered the earlier notion that understood propaganda as the
dissemination of “biased ideas and opinions often through the use of lies and
deception” as faulty and is being discarded by scholars. He said the topic is
now being studied in more detail by scholars. And he concluded that many came
to realize that “propaganda was not the sole property of evil”. Resto is of the
opinion that the aim of modern propagandists is to convince the targeted
audience to “voluntarily” accept his position. He is of the opinion that the claim
that propaganda is accompanied by distortion of fact and appeal to passion and
prejudice is false and misleading.
Maybe the
most appealing definition of the term comes from Ross (2002, p. 10) who sees
propaganda as: “An epistemically defective message used with the intention to
persuade a socially significant group of people on behalf of a political
institution, organization or cause”. Ross, while dismissing earlier definitions
that considered propaganda to be the presentation of a biased opinion, says
many theorists that have regarded propaganda as dangerous, their definitions of
the term do not account for this assessment, that it is associated with lies,
appeals to emotional and psychological manipulation. Ross is of the opinion
that “we are not manipulated solely by emotional appeals. Yet emotional can be
a relevant part of propaganda message”. But she added as Resells observed “the
line between emotion and reason is not so sharp as some people think” is in
order.
On the
claim that propaganda consists of lies, intent to persuade Ross added that,
this is not the same as intent to lie. An intent to lie she says seems to imply
that the person persuading believes one thing about a particular state of
affairs, yet endeavors to convince others to hold a position contrary to it She
concluded by saying there are “true believers who try to persuade others to
join the cause” Falsity she observed, cannot fully account for propaganda’s
pejorative sense. If a propagandist relies upon falsehood to convey her
position one’s credibility is then called to question. She quoted Josef
Goebbels who said “lies should be told, only about unverifiable facts” to
support her argument.
Origins of Propaganda
The most convincing opinion on the origin of
propaganda is the one from Ross and others who see it as a 16th-century
coinage, from Latin, to refer to the “Congregation De Propaganda” which was an
organization of the Roman Curia that had jurisdiction over missionary
territories. But the term was not widely used until the early part of the 20th century.
Originally, the word was considered neutral not pejorative in English, and it
simply means the dissemination of information in favour of any given cause.
Favouritism in this regard is not seen as bad or objectionable. But it is in
order to note that words such as ‘misteaching; ‘inducement’ and even warfare’
were some of the words used by Thesaurus (1852, p. 261,297) to classify the
term. It was during World War I, that the term acquired certain popular,
political meanings or connotations. To some, it is an instrument of the devil.
Others see it as a promotion that seeks ‘bad’ ends. Some, on the other hand,
believe that propaganda if administered intelligently, will benefit every man,
woman, and child. Propaganda achieved importance as an instrument of national
policy in the totalitarian states of Germany, Italy, and Japan after the war.
From the way and manner, scholars categorize the
term propaganda; one can see that the question of it being neutral is
debatable. Resto classified propaganda as follows:
White propaganda comes from an openly identified
source and is characterized by gentler methods of persuasion and one-sided
presentation of an argument. Black propaganda is identified as being from one
source, but is in fact from another, to disguise the true origins of the
propaganda. Grey is without any identifiable source or author.
#angogo, according to a reviewer of his book,
(2009, p. 38) categorizes propaganda as follows:
There are three forms of propaganda: White
propaganda where the source is known and stated; grey propaganda where the
source is implied but unstated, and black propaganda which is attributed to
false sources in order to mislead.
If
misleading is one of the major functions of propaganda, then the term is
anything but neutral. According to Stephens, “an expert on America’s overseas
information program” and a key director in the United States Information Agency
(USIA), propaganda is central to America’s foreign policy as can be deduced
from this quotation attributed to him by Resto.
While the United States has four foreign policy
instruments. Diplomatic, military, economic, and physiological, in theory, it
is the psychological instrument that advances American national and
international interests through the calculated manipulation of power to a
considerable extent.
The Wasan Marafa
Wasan Marafa was published during NORLA era, an outfit
established during colonial rule in Northern Nigeria in 1953. The playwright
Abubakar Tunau Mafara explained that it was a typical school play that was
staged at various middle schools i.e. Sakkwato, Talata-Mafara and Gusau before
it was finally published. It can be deduced that the text was written as a
result of the influence of the playwright’s European teachers. It is an attempt
to produce another text in line with Six Hausa Plays, a play
written by Dr. R. M. East in 1936, that will also serve as part of teaching
materials for drama lessons.
Aminu, 1991 and Wasan Marafa as
a Propaganda Play
The first known attempt to analyse the play in
detail as propaganda material was done by Haruna Aminu in 1991. Even though
even this attempt has its reservation as it viewed the play both as an
“enlightenment” and “propaganda” material as can be seen from the title of the
paper ‘Enlightenment and propaganda as themes in Wasan Marafa”. It
is a play centered on Marafa who had to go to the city in search of a cure.
Boka who despite his claims that he has
medicines for all illnesses, could not be of any help to Marafa who is down
with guinea-worm infection. This disappointment led Marafa to dismiss Boka and
his bundles of medicines. It is this rejection and condemnation that leads
Aminu to erroneously assume that the play is nothing but propaganda because
after his encounter with Boka he was taken to where he was given the necessary
treatment. He was also as stated by Aminu (1991, p. 3) “accompanied home by
Dubagari (sanitary inspector) who taught the family members how to obtain clean
water through filtration and the ways to keep their house and surroundings
clean”.
1Aminu added that (1991, p. 9) “after the
Marafa/Boka encounter, the former goes to the hospital and gets treated with
the help of western medicine”. He further added that “this is clearly
propaganda highlighting the lying incompetence of the traditional medicine and
traditional doctors”. The writer justified his stand regarding the play as a
propaganda tool with the following observation (1991, p. 7)
Considering the time, the play was published and
the types of ideas propagated by some indigenous write-ups at that same time
like Ƙaramin Sani Ƙuqumi and Bala
da Babiya both written in 1944 and 1950 respectively one will not
hesitate to conclude that the play is a propaganda drama systematically
designed to influence the audience under colonial domination with psychological
fear and had already taken antagonistic stand and hatred against the
colonialists and all that is associated with them.
The above generalization did not offer any proof
that the above-cited purely educational materials on teaching basic hygiene,
can be harmful to the Hausa, let alone be regarded as propaganda. The texts did
not contain any “negative” or “dangerous” dosage of propaganda. In fact, there
is no basis to include them in the analysis. They are not plays.
The playwright and the colonialists
The writer has reasons to subscribe to the views
of his lecturers and you can hardly fault him on this, he found the opinions of
Ohwona, a Marxist-inclined lecturer at Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria at that
time, enough and good justifications for his thinking. Since Ohwona is of the
opinion that colonialists needed healthy people in Africa for their selfish
ends, therefore any attempt to eradicate diseases among them is for the good of
colonialism. Since Marafa was first portrayed as living in destitution and
devastated by guinea worm, but later cured of his illness at the colonialists’
hospital, and even became not only healthy but wealthy then this is nothing but
propaganda. This is the argument advanced by Ohwona on the matter and accepted
hook, line, and sinker by Aminu (1991, p. 9)
The colonial regime was in dire for new
materials, cotton, cocoa, rubber, groundnuts, mineral ores, etc. to feed her
industries back home in Europe …. to get such healthy men and women to embark
on their production, colonial health policy was geared towards the mass
eradication of epidemic and endemic diseases.
In order to counter any argument that the
playwright is a Hausa man and not one of the colonialists (unlike Malam Dauda
Kano, the “author” of Tabarma Kunya who is an American and a
peace corps member) as such has nothing to do with colonialism, Aminu relied on
Hill’s argument that emphasized that propaganda often relies on fronts (1991,
p. 9-10)
Propaganda uses innocent-looking agents or
“fronts”, organizations while the propagandist himself remains behind the
scenes just to achieve his aim because the agent(s) may seem to the audience to
be much more credible or acceptable than the propagandist himself … especially
in areas where the propagandist is not very familiar with the language and
customs or where cultural, racial, religious or nationalistic attitudes would
deny him a favourable hearing, the use of an agent is inescapable.
With arguments from anti-colonial writers, there
is little wonder when Aminu concluded that Wasan Marafa is
meant to discredit and undermine the African traditional medical system such
that (1991, p. 8) “people will lose faith in the efficacy of the indigenous
medical system and corresponding gravitation towards western/scientific
medicine”.
While not holding brief for colonialism in any
way for its callous, destructive, and self-centered antecedents, yet if truth
ought to be told, the Marxists’ approach and style of blaming colonialism
advanced by Ohwona, Oculli, and Rodney and relied upon by Aminu, is, to say the
least, misplaced and unfair. As Hausa saying says “duk laifi na kura ne, amma
dai ban da satar waɗari”. The good deeds of the colonialist should
not for whatever reason be distorted as something bad. We should have the
courage to call spade a spade.
Aminu’s paper can equally be faulted based on
its definition of what is propaganda. The writer stated that (1991, p. 2)
propaganda “may directly or indirectly have a negative effect on the individual
or group”. A question that will readily come to mind is, what is the negative
effect of showing or teaching people how to live a healthy and decent
lifestyle? Or what is wrong with condemning the Hausa medicines that have no
value or any use whatsoever but only “negative effect” as admitted by the
writer himself?
Wasan Marafa discredit Hausa traditional medicine
A major weakness of the analysis is the
assumption that Wasan Marafa was meant to discredit Hausa
traditional medicine and paved the way for the acceptance of its western
counterpart. This is a grave mistake and misreading of the play. It is no
wonder the paper could not quote in toto the full dialogue between Boka and
Marafa where Boka’s medicine was rejected and dismissed as fake.
Wasan Marafa is an attack on quackery and imposters. It has no problem
with genuine, pure, and authentic Hausa traditional medicines or their
practitioners. The play can rightfully be adjudged as a pacesetter to
modern-day organisations that wage war against fake drugs such as NAFDAC in
Nigeria. It is an innovation since the 1940s to shame and ridicule pretenders,
to cut them to size, and expose them so that everybody can see their evil
deeds.
Dialogue between Marafa
It can also be asked when did Boka become the
standard yardstick for assessing Hausa traditional medicine practitioners? Does
rejecting Boka’s claims amount to rejecting Hausa traditional medicine and
therefore “gravitating towards the western medicine”? Will the full dialogue
between Marafa and Boka not convince any objective assessor that the play is
not in any way an affront to Hausa traditional medicine? The partially quoted
speech by Aminu has not done justice to the play. This is what propagandists will
call lying by omission. Let us have the full dialogue without any manipulation
(2012, p. 6-7)
Marafa: Af ai kuwa ga boka can ban sani ba ko Allah ya sa yana da maganin
kurkuna. Bari in kira shi in ji. Kai boka. Kai bokan nan mai magani.
Oh, that is boka over there, I do not know maybe
Allah has ordained he has medicine for guinea-worm. Let me call him to hear. Hi
boka, hi that boka, the medicine man
Boka: Na’am! Tsoho me ya same ka haka? Yanzu yanzu sai
in warkar da kai. Ni ne xam mai-ganye, jikan Ladi!
Yes! old man what is your problem like this? I
can cure you right away. I am xam mai ganye, grandson of Ladi!
Marafa: Tsaya in zauna tukuna kai kuma ka ajiye kayanka.
Ka gani, kurkunu ne ya dame ni, na yi neman magani har na gaji ban samu ba. Ko Allah ya sa
kana da shi.
Let me first sit down, while you also put down
your consignment. You see I am afflicted by guinea worm. I have searched for
medicine to no avail without success. Maybe Allah has given you the medicine.
Boka: Ayya! Tsoho kurkunu ka keji haka? Kash ai kuwa
ba mu fito da maganinsa ba. Yanzu ba mu yawo da irin waxannan qananan
magunguna. Sai dai kuma bari mu nuna maka wanda muka fito da shi. (Ya sa hannu
burgami ya riqa fitowa da ganyayen itatuwa da saqesaqi iri iri). Ka ga wannan
maganin tagomashin ‘yam mata ne. ‘Yar kowa ka ce kana so, shi ke nan ka samu!
Shin kana da yaya Tsoho? Ka ga wannan qi-faxi ke nan, ko da wa ka taga kokawa,
ko shi ke gungumurqi sarkin qarfin duniyar nan, kana kada shi. Wannan kuwa maganin
ciwon baya ne. Kai ga dai magunguna a nan wuri na barkatai. In dai kana da
‘ya’ya ya kamata ka karva musu na kokawar nan da na tagomashin ‘yam mata. Wannan kuwa maganin mai qari ne wannan kuma na igiyar qasa, ka ga layar
zana, kayan kowa ka so xauka sai ka xauka ba za a gan ka ba. Wannan kuwa na
cikin ‘yan tsumman nan qunshe shi ne na mutanen voye …
Oh, old man, you are suffering from guinea worm?
Oh no we did not come out with its medicine. Nowadays we do not carry with us
these miniature medicines. But let me show you the one that we have come out
with. (He put his hand in his bag (made of goat—skin) and start bringing out
leaves of trees and various roots). You see, this one is to be attractive to
girls, who so ever daughters you have an interest in, she is yours. Old man, do
you have children? This one is never-fall-down, whosoever you challenge in
wrestling if he is a Gungumurqi the strongest man in the world you will defeat
him. This one is a cure for backache. Yes, here with me you have all sorts of
medicines if you really have children, you better collect the one for wrestling
and attracting young girls for them. This one is the antidote for scorpions.
This is for snake bites. See the charm that helps you to become invisible. Who
so ever properties you want to take (steal) you can do so, you will not be
seen. This one that is wrapped and tied in a cloth is for the unseen (jinns) …
The contrast between Marafa and Boka even in
their language and tone, not to talk about their dispositions is so obvious.
While the former tries to relate and link his recovery from sickness to the
will and power of Allah, the latter is too arrogant, pretentious and pompous
that he can do the impossible. Where Marafa uses phrases with all humanity and
submission to the power of Allah such as “Ko Allah ya sa yana da maganin
kurkunu” and “ko Allah ya sa kana da shi”, on the other hand, the boastful Boka
who has the cure for all sorts of sickness uses sentences such as “yanzu yanzun
nan sai in warkar da kai”. Ironically his only known qualification is because
“ni ne ɗam-mai-ganye, jikan Ladi. The son of the
medicine man, Ladi’s grandson.
When it dawned on him that he can offer nothing
to Marafa in spite of his self-confident and inflated status, he resorted to
ridiculing and belittling Marafa’s predicament. Marafa’s sickness is not the
kind of diseases that they should carry its medicine with them. It is
inconsequential! “Ba mu yawo da irin waxannan qananan magunguna.”
One important point that cannot go unnoticed is
the way Boka graded his medicines. While most of them are lumped together in
the bag, one particular brand was wrapped separately with a cloth, because it
is special and unique. It cannot be treated or handled anyhow like the rest. It
is the antidote for the unseen, the jinns: “Wannan kuwa na cikin ‘yan tsumma na
qunshe, shi ne na mutanen Þoye” Boka’s major function if not claimed in Hausa
traditional medicinal culture is to provide succor for attacks from the unseen,
and other assumed mythical creatures.
There is therefore little wonder when Marafa
reacted angrily to Boka’s tales. He pushed away the basket containing all the
consignments with contempt. The fantasy from Boka not only dashed his hope but
he was equally insulted and his pride and pain ridiculed. His statements such
as “aikin banza tashi ka ba mutane wuri, mutumin banza mutumin wofi, maqaryaci
…” are most appropriate. He challenged Boka with the following statements
“tagomashi yai, ka ji ina tsarince ne? ko ka ji ina sata ne.” Boka has no answers
to these queries. Finally, the impostor was dismissed by saying “Tafi ka ba ni
wuri, maqaryacin banza, ku shigo gari kuna cin kuxin mutane a kan banza”. These
words exposed the true identity and role of boka in Hausa medicinal culture.
The false claimant was abused by saying “Ɗan tagomashin uwa!” Boka
could not deny all these dirty habits levelled against him. He did not deny
them, as he knows that they are true. Therefore, there is no more talk. He
could only do one thing. Laughed it off. He parked his consignments, beat his drum
and dramatizes the whole show by saying “wani ya xauki kurkunu ya faxi”. That
is the only thing that he can offer in retaliation. Someone has been affected
by guinea-worm and he is down and out.
This dialogue which was not analyzed by Aminu,
succeeded in exposing the quacks in Hausa traditional medicine. It separated
the grain from the chaff. Maganin layar zana, kokowa or
even those of tagomashin ‘yan mata are never taken as serious
medicines. In fact, they are not meant to cure any diseases, rather they are
meant to boost one’s fame and fortunes. Attacking them does not in any way mean
an attack on Hausa medicines. Marafa has said nothing negative about pure,
unadulterated Hausa traditional medicine. Therefore, there is no basis to infer
that the play is against Hausa medicine and a front for the West. The latter
has not been tested let alone be considered as unfit and wanting. It has not
failed, let alone the advocacy for its replacement by one that is superior and
better. Any argument along that thinking is at best superfluous. The fact that
the play shows how Marafa was later taken to a hospital and treated using
western medicine and shown how to take care of his drinking water and
environment in order to live a disease-free life, does not mean he has rejected
the efficacy and power of Hausa medicines. After all, what is western about
cleaning the environment, or drinking clean water or even having a regular
bath? If you remove the influences of other cultures and civilizations the
Islamic inclusive, on western medicine what else will be there to applaud and
appreciate? Essa and Ali have this to say on Islamic medicine (2012, p. 14).
In the early 9th century C.E.
Baghdad had 860 licensed physicians and many hospitals and schools. An
important period in the history of Islamic medicine covered three great
physicians, writers of major texts, and philosophers; al-Razi, al-Majusi and
Ibn Sina Al-Razi’s work signaled the maturity of Arabian medicine, and his most
significant contribution was to distinguish smallpox from measles. He produced
over 200 books, half of them on medicine…
On Ibn Sina or Avicenna as the West prefer to
call him, this is what the authors said (2012, p. 14)
Abu Ali al-Husain Ibn Sina (Avicenna) was the
most highly recognized Muslim scholar and prominent medical philosopher. Muslim
medicine reached the pinnacle of achievement with his works and medical
talents. Ibn Sina’s eminence in medical history rests on his masterpiece,
al-Qanun fi al-Tibb (The Canon of Medicine) known in the west as The Canon, in
five volumes
Even the credit for establishing hospitals can
be traced to Muslim efforts. The writers explained further that (2012, p.
14-15)
Muslims were noted for their hospitals and were
the first to invent the kind of efficient hospital the world knows today. In
addition to inventing the pharmacy, Islamic civilization produced
pharmaceutical terminology and practices that transferred to European medicine,
as methods of medication preparation. Muslim medicine was influential and
far-reaching and the Islamic paradigm of knowledge of the medieval period was
thorough and comprehensive in its focus.
Therefore, the culture of good sanitation and
hygiene that includes using clean drinking water, having a bath periodically,
and keeping clothes clean and tidy are nothing new to a typical Hausa man. It
is part of his religious obligations and prescriptions. Islamic basic texts are
full of data on these matters. Even Hausa customs and superstitions are replete
with these issues. One of the superstitions says if you leave dirt by your door
steps after sweeping your room, any devilish jinn sent to harm you by your
enemy, will find you an easy target. This is just a ploy to teach people the
culture of cleanliness. As such an attack on Boka should not be misunderstood
as a condemnation of Hausa medicine and by implication given preference to
Western medicine. One of the Boka’s kirari “Boka ci kaji” denotes that he only
deceives people and gets chickens from them in the name of rituals. No wonder
another “karin-magana” about him equally expresses his deceit and lies. “Yau da
gobe ƙaryata gobe.” Sooner or later the lies of boka
will be exposed.
Conclusion
This analysis in addition to providing the
definition of the term propaganda, its origin, and the means and ways of
studying and analyzing it, has shown that a proper reading of the play – Wasan
Marafa will convince the reader that the playwright is not a
propagandist. He is not a front to any authority or organization. The play is
an attempt to show the values and importance of cleanliness and the need for
any society to rely on pure and unadulterated medicines if the need arises.
Promoters of dubious and unreliable medicines like bokaye were
exposed and ridiculed.
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