Exploring Tiv Phonotactics within the Framework of Generative Phonology

Citation: Ahar, M. & Unyor, T.S. (2026). Exploring Tiv Phonotactics within the Framework of Generative Phonology. Tasambo Journal of Language, Literature, and Culture, 5(2), 83-93. www.doi.org/10.36349/tjllc.2026.v05i02.010.

EXPLORING TIV PHONOTACTICS WITHIN THE FRAMEWORK OF GENERATIVE PHONOLOGY

By

Msuega Ahar
Department of Languages and Linguistics
Rev. Fr. Moses Orshio Adasu University, Makurdi
aharmsuegaahar@gmail.com
+2348064835183

And

Terhile Simon Unyor
Department of Languages and Linguistics
Rev. Fr. Moses Orshio Adasu University, Makurdi
unyorunyorsimon@gmail.com
+234 8101081013

Abstract

This study explores Tiv phonotactics within the theoretical framework of generative phonology, with a focus on accounting for Tiv sound patterns and constraints that govern well-formed syllable structures and words in the language. Tiv, a Benue-Congo language spoken predominantly in central Nigeria, shows distinctive segmental distribution, syllable structures, and phonotactic restrictions that allow formal analysis. Drawing on data and descriptive analysis, the study identifies permissible and impermissible consonant and vowel structures, syllable types, and positional restrictions. These surface representations are considered a result of underlying representations and ordered phonological rules within the framework of generative phonology. It accounts for how abstract underlying structures are transformed into surface structures through processes such as vowel insertion, consonant deletion, and feature spreading, thereby resolving phonetic violations. By bringing Tiv phonotactics within a rule-based generative model, it highlights the ability of generative phonology in revealing the general nature of Tiv sound structure and adds to the broader understanding of phonological patterns in Benue-Congo languages.

Keywords: Generative, phonology, phonotactics, syllable, Tiv

Introduction

Interaction with languages of the world reveals that sound patterns differ across languages; the permissible sound combinations in one language do not always align with those of another. Phonotactics, the set of permissible sounds and constraints on how segments combine in a language, plays a vital role in accounting for the internal organization of a language’s phonological structure. As a branch of phonology, phonotactics provides insights into how languages limit segment sequencing, allow specific syllable structures, and determine sound behavior at different levels. Knowledge of these acceptable combinatory patterns is relevant for explaining why certain sound structures are possible, while others are not, particularly within the framework of generative phonology. Phonotactic principles are structured to reflect the mental grammars that govern the natural dispositions that underlie the surface form of a given language. This theoretical landscape allows for the assessment of sound distribution and the processes that shape phonological well-formedness.

As a major language of the Benue-Congo family, Tiv is spoken largely in Benue State and the surrounding regions of North Central Nigeria. Despite its geographical spread and numerical strength, Tiv is poorly represented in formal phonological literature. Existing research focuses mainly on segmental and tonal elements, often omitting deeper structural constraints that govern the organization of Tiv sounds. Tiv, however, exhibits interesting phonotactic characteristics, including restrictions on consonant clusters, a tendency towards open syllables, and a vowel sequence resolution process, among others. These patterns, however, have not been carefully analyzed within theoretical frameworks that can clearly explain why they occur and how they interact.

Exploring Tiv phonetics through the framework of generative phonology offers a platform for uncovering the underlying principles that determine Tiv sound structure. As an analytical tool, generative phonology provides a basis for examining phonotactic restrictions by drawing on distinctive features, underlying representations, rule formulation, and rule ordering. This approach accounts for both static distributional restrictions and dynamic phonological processes that shape Tiv surface forms. A generative approach goes beyond merely establishing possible and impossible sound combinations in Tiv; it also explains patterns that arise through assimilation, feature spreading, and other systematic processes.

This research endeavor stems from the need to fill existing gaps in Tiv phonological scholarship and contribute to broader theoretical discussions on how Niger-Congo languages encode phonotactics within a generative framework.  The study aims to describe the segmental and syllable-level restrictions of the Tiv language and categorize them using formal phonological rules. This will establish how the Tiv phonological system can be understood as a structured system guided by predictable rule interactions. The findings will be relevant to linguistic theory, African language documentation, comparative studies, and practical applications such as literacy materials, language pedagogy, and orthography development.

This paper investigates the sound system of Tiv by identifying its phonotactic constraints and analyzing them through the formal framework of generative phonology. The study intends to deepen the understanding of Tiv phonology and to highlight the explanatory relevance of generative theory in accounting for sound distribution patterns in natural languages.

Statement of Problem

In spite of the growing research endeavors in the field of linguistics, mainly on Nigerian languages and Tiv in particular, Tiv phonotactics remains insufficiently described and theoretically underexplored, especially within the framework of generative phonology. Many researchers have focused primarily on segmental inventories and tone, among other aspects, but little attention has been given to a systematic analysis of the constraints governing permissible sound sequences, syllable structures, and other areas. This limited analysis has thwarted an understanding of some Tiv speakers' internalized phonotactic rules, how these rules work together in ensuring consistent phonological patterns, and how phonological representations are structured within a generative perspective.

Additionally, the lack of a comprehensive phonotactic account has created gaps in determining the well-formedness of Tiv words, identifying constraint-driven restrictions, and explaining alternations that emanate from irregular sequences. Without a generative analysis, the underlying principles shaping Tiv phonological patterns remain informalized, making it difficult to compare Tiv with other Benue-Congo languages or to contribute meaningfully to general phonological theory. This paper therefore, addresses the absence of a systematic, theory-driven phonotactic account of Tiv that reveals all the underlying structure of its phonological system.

Conceptual Clarifications

To ensure clarity and ease of understanding, key concepts in this study, such as Phonotactics, the Tiv language, and generative phonology, are briefly discussed to guide readers through the paper. The study integrates generative phonology and phonotactics by analyzing Tiv sound patterns as rule-governed mental representations, showing how Tiv phonotactic constraints are systematically generated and explained within the generative framework.

Phonotactics

Phonotactics encompasses the set of restrictions in a language that determine how sound structures are arranged or organized within syllables and words. It reveals permissible consonant and vowel patterning systems, syllable types, and positional distribution that guide which sounds could be allowed to occur in word-initial, medial, or final positions. This phonotactic behavior helps in defining the phonological shape of a language and enables speakers to distinguish well-formed phonological structures from ill-formed ones (Crystal, 2008). This study examines phonotactic patterns and constraints that are functional in Tiv sound combinations. Crystal (2011) defines "phonotactics" as a term used in phonology, referring to the sequential arrangements (or tactic behavior) of phonological units in a language and what constitutes a phonologically well-formed word. In English, for example, consonant sequences such as /ʧ/ and /spm/ do not occur at word initials, and there are many restrictions on permissible consonant-vowel combinations.

Tiv Language

Some classifications consider Tiv within the Southern Bantoid group, showing its similarities with other central Nigerian languages (Shimizu, 1975). Tiv permits a diverse variety of phonological patterns and has seven vowel phonemes that constitute its phonological structure (Gbor, 1980; Pulleyblank, 1988). The language employs high, low, and down-stepped tones for both delexical and grammatical purposes, which help distinguish otherwise identical lexical items. Generally, Tiv favors simple syllable structure, which includes CV and CVC, among others. These linguistic features provide the basis for understanding Tiv phonotactic constraints and permissible sound combinations.

Generative Phonology

Chomsky and Halle (1968) developed the theory of generative phonology. The theory provides an insightful framework through which Tiv phonotactics can be examined, explaining how underlying forms are transformed into surface representation through rule-based operations. It accounts for abstract mental representations of words prior to the application of phonological processes (Kenstowicz & Kisseberth, 1979). The theory explains why certain phonological structures are unacceptable by showing how rules eliminate illicit sequences. Generative phonology employs a feature-based method to describe sound distributional patterns as part of phonotactic analysis. The roles of vowel harmony and tone often influence allowable phonotactic structures, making rule-based analysis particularly suitable. Within this framework, generative phonology serves as both an analytical and explanatory model for investigating Tiv phonotactic patterns.

Review of Related

LiteraturePhonotactics is an aspect of phonology that deals with syllable structure and constraints in languages. Ugechi and Ayagah (2021) viewed the internal structure of the Tiv language and revealed different types as V, CV, CCV, CCCV, and CVC. They maintain that sequences which superficially appear as consonant clusters in Tiv are better understood as co-articulations rather than tone clusters. This has an important point for linguistic reflection and implication for Tiv phonotactics.

As a repair strategy, Aor (2020) investigates epenthesis in Tiv, particularly in the adaptation of English loanwords. Using a generative framework (Chomsky and Halle), he formulates rules showing how a vowel or consonant occurs in Tiv phonotactics well-formedness constraint for the sample, breaking up consonant clusters that do not agree with Tiv native syllable patterns. Tsevende (2022), from a generative perspective, also identified phonotactic constraints that allow palatalization in areas like /i/, /j/, or /w/ glides and maintain that palatalization is common in processes of plural formation, deletion, epenthesis, and metathesis. Moreover, Musa (2024) reveals the process and effect of palatalization in Tiv, combining phonetic explanation with theoretical understanding to account for how palatalization changes and shapes morpheme structure and influences the distribution of phonemes. Sokpo & Shitu (Journal of the Linguistic Association of Nigeria) look at morphophonemic alternations in Tiv plural formation. They show how prefixation, examples, “mba” as in “mbayev,” the plural of “wanye,” and “i” as in “igyo,” the plural of “gyo.”

Complementing this, Ayagah (2023) uses a more modern framework (optimality theory) for describing how morphophonemic alignment and faithfulness constraints determine plural affixation in Tiv, explaining the different interaction between morphology and phonotactics. Aor & Damkor (2021) undertook a diachronic study of sound change in the Tiv language, looking at epenthesis, deletion, and substitution. The study highlights how Tiv's phonotactic nature emanates over time as a result of language contact and internal change.

A close observation reveals that existing studies on Tiv phonology lack a comprehensive theoretical account or explanation of Tiv phonotactics; previous studies look at a single issue other than a generative explanation that links these various patterns together. Despite the rich descriptive study on Tiv, few have made provision for a rule-based, feature-driven generative analysis, creating theoretical imbalances in the Tiv phonology study. Therefore, there is a need for more comprehensive or encompassing analysis that can explain the underlying structure, rule interaction, or mental phonological behavior governing Tiv phonotactics. This research focus contributes to broader linguistic theory; it qualifies to show how Tiv fits into universal phonological principles, making complete the documentation of Niger-Congo phonologies. In summary, initial Tiv studies on phonotactics are descriptively narrow and precise: issue-specific, while this study is needed to fill the theoretical gap, unify already existing findings, and deeply account for the generative structure of Tiv phonotactics.

Theoretical Framework

Phonological studies could be based on any linguistic theory provided it is able to explain or help in analyzing the phonological concept and idea under consideration. This study, however, is grounded in generative phonology, an aspect of the generative grammar theory propounded by Chomsky and Halle (1968). This theory adopts a formal, rule-based analysis for explaining how phonological representations are changed or transformed into real functional surface forms available in natural language. For example, a word like “member” in Tiv is pronounced as /m’em’bel/, while the same word can be pronounced when speaking English as /membə(r)/ by the same person. Again, a word like “tor” can be pronounced differently by a single speaker, giving it different tones required by the context to derive the meaning and having to do with underlying phonological forms, the mental forms speakers have kept. In looking at Tiv phonotactics, this framework helps the researcher to identify, describe, and also account for the constraints and permissible sound sequences that regulate Tiv syllable structure, segmentations, and Tiv phonological processes.

The core assumptions of generative phonology are that speakers of a language have mental concepts of their language, which are technically referred to as underlying forms. This agrees with the view expressed by Akase (2018) that language is a social and psychological construct involving symbols, signs, and material objects that are prone to communication. This implies that language is an interactive and mental system between and among human beings.” The phrase "mental system" shows that language goes beyond the external symbols or sounds. This theory also assumes that linguistic rules are universal, but individual languages operate with specific rules; these rules help in determining the well-formedness through sequences that are acceptable phonotactically. The various assumptions and tenets of this generative theory of phonology are relevant, among other theories, for this study.

Methodology

This paper adopts a descriptive qualitative research design, harmonizing formal linguistic analysis with limited native speaker consultations. The research is foremostly theoretical, which agrees with the principles of generative phonology to Tiv existing phonotactic data. In addition, minimal field verification is included to ensure accurate information where there are limiting data in the available literature. The research engaged two complementing sources of data, which include existing works on Tiv phonology and phonotactics, Tiv dictionaries and lexicons, academic articles, theses, and dissertations, among others. Also a minimal native consultation: A sample of adult native speakers, aged 20–45, was consulted for pronunciation confirmation, validating surface realizations of specific forms and ensuring that selected examples reflect actual spoken Tiv. The researchers used purposive sampling to ensure the people are fluent, active Tiv speakers, among others. The primary database is drawn from published linguistic materials, using established Tiv linguistic literature to ensure constant validity, combining both sources to avoid reliance on a single type of data.

Analysis and Discussion

The Tiv phonotactics allows different sequences of consonants as the surface representation of which makes up the entire phonology. There are sequences of two, three, four, and even more. But for the sake of this study, only the sequences of two, three, and four are presented in the following table.

Table 1: Showing Consonant Combinations of Two, Three, and Four

Sound sequences	Words	Word position	Meaning
/by/	abyaa	Medial	Small hoe
/mz/	Mzembe	Initial	Pears
/ts/	tsan	Initial	Sharp
/gh/	tugh	Final	Night
/mt/	mtsem	Initial	Potash
/ngw/	ungwa	Medial	Hear
/gby/	Igba	Medial	Kinsman
/mngb/	mngbagh	Initial	Roast
/rtsw/	iortswam	Medial	People hate
/ghgb/	mzoughgba	Medial	A gathering

 

This table is a clear and simple representation of various kinds of consonant sequences in Tiv phonology. Like any other language, the phonotactics allows the above-stated consonant sequences in varying word positions as indicated on the above table. The “by” functions as a word initial, as in “bya,” a disease that affects a man with various wounds; it can also occur at the word medial position, as stated in number one on the table, but it cannot occur at the word final position. While “mz,” “ts,” “mls,” and “mggs” operate at word initials in Tiv, they may be found operating at the medial but not at the final position. On the contrary “gh”, manner of distribution can take place at the medial and final word positions. The “rtsw” and “ghgh” can only operate at the medial position in Tiv words. This understanding is very important to help both readers and speakers of the language,, “gh” even non-native speakers. However, consonant combinations like “pl,” “lp,” “th,” and “str,” which may be applicable in other languages, English, for example, do not have a place in the Tiv language.

Table 2: Showing the allowable vowel sequences in Tiv phonotactics

Sound sequences	Words	Meaning
/a/	Ma	Drink
/i/	Tim	Destroy
/o/	Tom	Work
/u/	Un	Him
/ee/	Kpee	Tomorrow
/oo/	loo	Sunshine
/aa/	Baa	Salt
/aao/	Gbaaondo	Nature
/aie/	Aie	Lie
/iao/	nyiaôr	Name of a person

 

Vowels in Tiv phonotactics are distributed in various ways and manners. The above table 2 is a good but brief reflection of permissible vowel combinations or sequences in Tiv phonology. The /a/, /i/, /u/, and /o/ are single representations of vowels in Tiv; this means sequences are very flexible in nature in terms of their distribution in Tiv. They occur at the word initial, medial, and final without any restriction across the Tiv language. The /oo/, /ee/, and /aa/ only indicate the long version of the short single vowels, while /aao/, /aie/, and /iao/, among others, show how Tiv language phonotactics allow the combination to belong to distinct syllables; these also reveal the features accountable in the Tiv phonotactics.

Table 3: Showing  Tiv Syllable Structure

Syllable type	Words	Meaning
V	u	Whom
N	mmem	Rest
VV	Ie	Lie
CV	ma	Drink
VC	Ir	Dirt
VVC	iev	Images
CVV	baa	Salt
CVC	tam	Chew
CVVC	haav	Roof

 

Table 3 represents the various syllable structures in Tiv phonotactics. As summarized above, the Tiv phonotactics allows these various types of syllables to exist. In Tiv, a vowel (v) is allowed to form a syllable or segment or can form a whole word. “N” exists in Tiv as the syllabic nasal /m/, which is homographic with the following consonant. This consonant sometimes appears as a phonological word, particularly when it functions as a first-person singular pronoun. It adopts a syllabic nature when it appears at the initial position in a word, except when it precedes the bilabial plosive sounds /b/ and /m/; it also constitutes a syllable when it occurs at the final position in Tiv words, where it functions as an objective form of the personal pronoun or possessive pronoun. For example, ‘mmem’ means “rest,” and “mtem” means “sit,” among others. As a type of Tiv syllable “vv,” here consonants are not allowed to combine and make up the syllable structure. This type of syllable structure is also very common in Tiv phonotactics; examples include “oo”__ sunshine and “ie”__ lie, among others. The CV syllable type is the common syllable structure distributed across the Tiv language. In function also as monosyllabic words in Tiv, it consists of an initial consonant followed by a vowel as determined by Tiv phonotactics; it discourages consonant clusters within a single syllable; it reflects a preference for open syllables and influences various aspects of its phonology, morphology, and syntax. Some others include “ma” (drink), “la” (that), and “ku” (death).

Another syllable structure is VC, which forms a coda in Tiv but not an onset. It serves as a morphological unit or a phonological word depending on the practical, as can be seen here as examples: “ir” __ dirt, “pir” __ quench, and “pav” __ separate. In the case of VVC, two vowel sequences are allowed as a combination, and with an additional consonant, they form a syllable structure. In most cases, the consonant at the final position is restricted to either nasals or voiced labiodental fricatives, as in “een”—yes, “iev”—images. The CVV is also expressed as a syllable type; a consonant at its initial position is combined with a cluster of vowel sounds or a long vowel. This is less frequent, but still it is part of the Tiv syllable structure. This type often results from vowel lengthening, diphthongization, or morpheme combination and plays an important role in tone, vowel harmony, and prosody. These include “tôô” __ take and “hii” __ start. The CVC syllable structure, or type, is a closed syllable type; it is heavy and made up of an initial consonant, a vowel as its nucleus, and a final consonant. In most cases, the coda position is limited to the consonants /m, n, ng, r, i/; it also includes /v/ as a voiced labiodental fricative. For example, “tam” means “chew,” “sen” means “downward movement,” and “kam” means “squeeze.” The CVVC syllable type is made up of a consonant, two vowels, and a final consonant. This is very rare in Tiv phonotactics but does exist under specific phonological conditions; this typically arises from vowel lengthening, diphthongization, or morpheme combination and often appears in verbs, nouns, stems, and borrowed words. Unlike the more common CV and CVC syllables, CVVC structures are restricted by Tiv phonotactic rules, particularly regarding vowel harmony and final consonant distribution. For example, “haav” means roof, and “soom” means like one.

Onset in Tiv syllable structure has unique features, which requires good knowledge for both native and non-native speakers. One of these features is onset constraint: a syllable begins with zero consonant, a single consonant, two consonants, or even three consonants. For example, “ku” means death, “kwagh” means thing, and “tswen” means alone, respectively. It should, however, be understood that the Tiv language allows multiple consonants at the onset, yet these consonants are not necessary consonant clusters, though there are few instances in Tiv phonotactics where consonant clusters are allowed. For example, in words like “mnenge” __ I have seen and “mtswenem” __, among others, one can see that the /mn/ and /mt/ are serving as consonant clusters. However, their reflection and distribution in Tiv is very minimal and does not really constitute challenges in daily usage. Most of them are complex consonant structures that are co-articulated and cannot be said to be consonant clusters. Vowel-initial syllables are possible but rare or restricted; most syllables tend to have a consonant forming their onset of consonant sequences, like “mb,” a nasalized stop that can only operate at the initial position in the syllable and not at the medial or final. Other sounds with similar articulation and manner of distribution include “ndz,” “mgh,” and “ugh.” The “gh” (r), voiced velar fricative, has its place of distribution only at the final position of a syllable.

Tiv has a set of vowel phonemes, both oral and nasal, including front, central, and back words. Tiv allows various forms of vowel distribution, giving a variety of syllable structures. Tiv phonotactics allow flexibility in the manner of vowel distribution, where there are one, two, or three in a row across syllable or morpheme boundaries. However, there are constraints. While Tiv phonotactics allow various vowel distributions, the language, however, dislikes direct vowel-vowel adjacency (hiatus) and has phonotactic rules that try to avoid it. It is not common to have two vowels in a row across a morpheme or within a word without some repairs. When two words meet or join in a speech, speakers try to modify the sequence through deletion, assimilation, or insertion of a consonant or glide to avoid unpreferred vowel distribution. As a result, vowel sequences are regulated through repair when they arise. Some Tiv examples include “pase+ave/pasave”__ remove hands; instead of two vowels as “ea,” /e/ has been deleted to have a modified morpheme __ “pasave,” “kondo+ato/kondato” __ deaf ear, and “atoatyev/atootyev” __ foreigner or non-native, among others. Vowel assimilation and vowel elision play a critical role as the most common strategies in Tiv to resolve vowel-vowel sequences. This presents a common phonotactic principle in Tiv phonology.

The coda in Tiv phonotactics is also peculiar to the language; Tiv allows syllables of the CVC type.  The Tiv coda is highly restricted in nature. Only one consonant is permissible at the coda position in Tiv phonotactics; complex consonant clusters are not allowed. Few consonants are allowed at the coda position in Tiv; these include /m, n, ng, r, l/ and the voiced labio-dental fricative /v/. So, some of these constrained Tiv syllables are closed when the consonants belong to the above stated, as can be seen from these words: “Tom” (word cvc), “sam” (grain cvc), and many others. As a result, acceptable syllable structures in Tiv include v, cv, cvc, and cvv/cv_long, among others; however, it depends on either a coda or a complex nucleus. Complex codas do not have a place in Tiv phonotactics in the syllable structure. And a small set of consonants can appear as final consonants; consonant sets appear at the end. Consequently, Tiv is fairly reserved or reserved/conservative about the coda composition or structure.

In Tiv, the interaction between morphology and phonology to produce meaningful words adopts various statuses. The process can be summed up as adding prefixes, suffixes, and infixes and forming plural derivations, which allow phonological changes. It means building new forms and words such that modifications are made to affect either the pronunciation or the shape of the morphemes. The Tiv plural form is achieved by prefixation, as in adding “mba,” “i,” “a,” and “u.” For example, “wanye” means “child,” and “mbayev” means “children,” and “kpan” means “slave,” and “ikpan” means “slaves,” respectively. In some contexts tone interacts with the morphophonemic processes to produce new words as singular and plural. This is because Tiv is a tonal language, and tone has a serious role in changing the morphological form of a word from singular to plural. As in the case of ígyó-pig and ígyó-pigs, -íyô-snake and íyô-snakes.

Moreover, when Tiv borrows words from other languages like English, they contain sound sequences and syllable/coda structures that are common to English and alien to Tiv, in which they are modified to meet the acceptable phonotactic rule in Tiv. A close observation reveals that Tiv makes use of interfixes also in forming compounds, derived or complex words. It is the inclusion of a vowel, a syllable like “mba,” or even a complex word. However, not every morphological process in Tiv behaves uniformly; there are variations according to the stem, its final sounds, and the historical/present phonological environment. It means every general rule must be found fitting in a particular linguistic situation. Literature describes many situations of plural formation, interfixation, and downward adaptation, but the study, however, focuses on plurals or normal inflection. Knowing that interaction between morphology and tones, there can be unpredictable changes in tone when morphemes combine; it calls for careful attention when learning or describing Tiv.

A Generative Analysis of Tiv Phonotactics

This analysis encloses aspects of phonological elements like underlying representations, rule formation, rule ordering and interaction, and evaluation of the generative approach, which are considered paragraphically. Tiv has a definite consonant inventory, which includes stops, nasals, fricatives, liquids, and approximants; it also has vowels of different kinds. These consonants are simplified as /p, b, t, d, k, g, f, v, s, z, ʃ, h, m, n, ŋ, l, r, w, j/, while vowel contrasts are /I, e, u, o, Ɔ, Ə, u/. Basically, Tiv permits CV, CVC, and also V syllable structures. Examples of the underlying representations include (mba) and (nd). "mba" is often analyzed as a prenasalized stop: Generatively, prenasalized stops are considered as single segments (/mb/, /nd/, and /ŋ/) rather than normal clusters; this is because of their co-articulatory nature as onsets in the Tiv language.

There are common phonological rules in the Tiv language, or phonotactics. Tiv phonotactic rules are then represented as considered under generative phonology. Tiv enclosed articulatory vowel harmony, where vowels share common attributes in a word environment. Simple expressions like 'Ngu a verse' are changed in speech to 'Nguevese.' In this case we have two vowel coalescences or vowel mergers; these vowels are combined to form a single vowel or a glide + vowel sequence. The rule here is Ѳ→e/u – v + V2 V3. Meaning e is inserted between u and v. From the example, /Ngu/ + /a/ to /Ngua/, which is pronounced as [Ngue-] (a common phonological system in Tiv of U+a 'u+a ue or we). This is also referred to as vowel-to-vowel assimilation and can be seen as assimilation through coalescence or assimilatory vowel coalescence. This entails two vowels merging, and the outcome is a vowel that inherits features from both; therefore, the final 'ue' vowel is an agreement formed by assimilating features from /u/ and /a/. In some cases, vowel /a/ is taken away or deleted once the coalescence takes place. In which case, the rule becomes V'n 0/V-V. It now explains the deletion of the independent /a/ in 'Ngu' versus 'n Nguevese.'

Tiv also accepts nasal place assimilation, morpheme-initial nasal sounds that assimilate to the place of articulation. This nasal is underlying a nasal initial as the prefix /N-/ that changes its place depending on the consonant that follows it. The underlying form is /N+ga/; the nasal /N-/ assimilation to the place of articulation of /g/, /g/ is a velar stop, so the nasal becomes a velar nasal /ng/. The rule becomes N'n (ng)-g. The surface form remains /N+ga/ 'n (nga). Small

Conclusion

This paper has explored Tiv phonotactics through the theoretical basis of generative phonology and uncovered the underlying principles that determine sound distribution and permissible contributions in the language. This study has revealed that surface phonotactic systems are determined from systematic or rule-governed processes operating on abstract underlying representations. The findings reveal that Tiv phonotactic constraints can be well presented through generative rules such as feature specifications, syllable structure, patterns, and phonological processes, including assimilation, vowel harmony, and consonant cluster restrictions. The application of generative phonology has also shown that Tiv phonotactics revealed a well-formed interaction overall; exploring Tiv phonotactics within the template of generative phonology contributes to a deeper understanding of Tiv sound patterns and reinforces the explanatory power of the generative approach in African linguistics.       

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