The Limits of Human Nature: Islamic Principles of Governance as Catalyst to Violent Armed Banditry in Northwest, Nigeria

Cite this article as: Yahaya A. G. (2024). The Limits of Human Nature: Islamic Principles of Governance as Catalyst to Violent Armed Banditry in Northwest, Nigeria. Proceedings of International Conference on Rethinking Security through the lens of Humanities for Sustainable National Development Interdisciplinary Perspectives. Pp. 1-17.

THE LIMITS OF HUMAN NATURE: ISLAMIC PRINCIPLES OF GOVERNANCE AS CATALYST TO VIOLENT ARMED BANDITRY IN NORTHWEST, NIGERIA

Atiku Garba Yahaya

Professor of Islamic History
Department of Islamic Studies,
Usmanu Danfodiyo University, Sokoto

1. Introduction

In the name of Allah, the Beneficent, the Merciful. May the peace and blessings of Allah be upon the Noble Prophet Muhammad (Sallallahu alaihi wasallam).

Nigeria’s North West is one of the country’s six geo-political zones, and home to seven of the 36 states, namely, Jigawa, Kaduna, Kano, Katsina, Kebbi, Sokoto, and Zamfara (Buba, 2023). The region in the past few years has come under severe security threats resulting from the menace of armed banditry in the rural communities and villages in different states of the region. Bandits are a loose collection of various criminal groups involved in kidnap-for-ransom, armed robbery, cattle rustling, rape, pillage, attacks on traders, farmers, travellers and other sexual violence particularly, in Nigeria's North-West region. (Rufa'i, 2021). This growing trend of banditry in the Northwest is claiming victims in their hundreds. Several children have been made orphans, women become widows overnight, and young women are raped and molested while the issue of food security and humanitarian tragedy is further exacerbated which make life more difficult for many Nigerians within the region and beyond. (Ukaeje, 2021). In 2019, bandits were reportedly responsible for almost half of all violent deaths in Nigeria. It has been argued that behind the armed banditry crisis are opportunistic criminal gangs and other organised armed groups. However, it is pertinent to note that what differentiates armed banditry from terrorism is that the latter is mostly driven by political ideology, while the former is motivated by insatiable quest for unholy wealth, which Folahanmi, et al (2023) refers to as “economic opportunism”.

Banditry is now a flourishing criminal enterprise and its threat envelopes virtually all parts of Nigeria, making it an issue of public concern (Oloniyan, 2018). It is now a widespread practice in both urban and rural areas of Nigeria, particularly in Northern Nigeria. According to the Armed Conflict Location & Event Data Project (ACLED) (2024), since 2011, Nigeria’s North West region has grappled with a proliferation of armed banditry, making it the current epicentre of violence in the country. In Zamfara and Kaduna states alone, there have been over 4,758 reported fatalities between 2018 and 2023, surpassing killings by JAS and ISWAP in North East over the same period. The ‘armed bandits’ behind these violent activities constitute myriad groups operating under different gang leaders whose activities have included cattle rustling, kidnapping for ransom, artisanal gold mining, armed robbery, mass killings, rape and extensive destruction of crops, livestock and property (ACLED, 2024).

Over the past decade, banditry has evolved from a communal rivalry into lethal militia groups (Claire, 2021). Banditry has become an appealing method of gaining income in North West Nigeria where weak governance, youth unemployment, poverty, and inequality have left people with depleted options for livelihood. Security services are often understaffed and lack the proper resources to effectively combat banditry. Vast areas of unregulated forests have allowed for easy concealment, and police and military forces have difficulty penetrating the rough terrain. In addition, porous and under-policed borders have aided the proliferation of small arms and light weapons among bandit groups (Claire, 2021).

Despite efforts of the Federal and State governments in checkmating the trend of banditry, yet, it assumes new dimensions always. It is in the light of the above that Islam (a complete way of life) is perceived to be a capable solution to this menace, being described as the religion of peace and awareness towards a total upbringing of an individual within the content and context of Islamic principles; intended as a means to stimulate a more elevated moral and spiritual consciousness, leading to faith and righteous action as well as uniting the entire community (Garba and Abdul-Malik, 2017). Against this backdrop, the paper examines the surge in incidences of violent armed banditry in the North western region of Nigeria and how Islamic principles of governance, if sincerely taught and practised without misunderstanding or misapplication, can influence the level of peace, justice, and stability in the region. This paper is divided into five sections, starting with this introductory section. The second section deals with conceptual clarification, while the third section reviews violent armed banditry in Nigeria's Northwest region. The fourth section reviews how Islamic principles of governance can be used to tame human excesses and influence peace and stability in the region and the final section offers the conclusion of the study.

2. Conceptual Issues: The Human Nature

The concept of human nature in Islam is all-encompassing and comprehensive (Abadi and Khan 2023). Allah mentions in the Glorious Qur’an that man is at the highest position of all creations and is regarded as the best of Allah’s creations. (Qur’an 95:4; 17:70). Abadi and Khan (2023) argue that being in a high position in Allah’s sight does not warrant that one will remain there permanently. He can lose his privileged position when he exceeds the boundaries of Allah. This can be supported by Qur’an 95:5.

To comprehend the concept of human nature in Islam, it is significant to understand the notion of Fitrah. It embodies the concept of al-Khilaq which refers to the creation of anything unique.(Abadi and Khan (2023). Sayyid Qutb believes that fitrah can be referred to intrinsic goodness and intrinsic badness of human beings. According to him, man has a predisposition for both good and evil and is capable of choosing to move in either direction as could be seen in some verses of the Glorious Qur’an (Qur’an 90:10; 73:3).

Among all the creations in the heaven and earth, only man has been bestowed with many distinctive qualities. As a result of these qualities, man is placed on the highest pedestal in the hierarchy of creations. Some of these distinctive features are: he was created in the best form (Qur’an 95:1-4); provided with creative intelligence (Qur’an 2:31-34) and was given the power of speech and freedom of choice (Qur’an 55:4; 76:3). As a result of these qualities also, he was conferred as the Khalifatullah fi al-ard (Allah’s Vicegerent on earth) (Qur’an 2:30). The title Khalifah places man in an honoured position to be Allah’s deputy; administrator; representative e.t.c. on earth. Thus, this gives him power and authority to rule, manage and preserve the earth. (Abdul Razak, 2011).

Another aspect of human nature in the Glorious Qur’an is that man has a dual nature i.e. body (badan). and spirit (ruh). This can be deduced from the context that after Allah created Adam, the first mankind, He breathed into him His spirit (Qur’an 15:28-29). Therefore, all human beings who are the descendants of Adam are made up of two elements: the physical body, which represents clay and indicates mortality, and the ruh, or the spirit, which is immortal that leaves the body upon the death of an individual (Abdul Razak, 2011).

Human nature refers to the inherent and universal characteristics of human beings. It encompasses the biological, social, and environmental factors that influence human behaviour. Some argue that human nature is an essence or a set of innate properties (Ramsey, 2023), while others view it as the unique qualities that distinguish humans from other animals (Visala, 2015). Understanding human nature involves considering the evolutionary, biological, sociological, and historical processes that shape human behaviour. Overall, a human nature is a complex and multifaceted concept that is studied in the interdisciplinary field of human sciences (Ramsey, 2023).

Conflict has become part of human life that can be ignited by the struggle for scarce resources, division of functions, power relations, and role differentiation. Over the years, the concept has acquired a plethora of meanings, as well as generating considerable contradictions and controversies which end up leaving scholars and administrators alike in an uncertain situation about its real meaning and relevance (Bercovitch 1983). Singer (1949), as cited in Bercovitch (1983), sees conflict as a sort of destructive violence that is occasioned by inefficiency and irrationality. In this context, inefficiency can be seen as a direct result of irrationality. In other words, conflict is bound to occur in a society where there is no sincerity in the way and manner that daily activities are being carried out. As such, every irrational society is bound to be engulfed in violent conflict. According to Nicholson (1992) and Galtung (2009), conflict involves incompatible or irreconcilable goals that are irresolvable. Conflict does occur as a result of mutually inconsistent acts of individuals or groups, concerning their wants, needs, or obligations. It is a state of disagreement or hostility between and among people in an organisation. Thus, conflict is a situation where two or more different parties are incongruous in their views and act according to their different views without having an accord. It is a state where people are pursuing incompatible goals that can lead to a collision.

Conflict thus, means all types of unfriendly interactions precipitated by incompatible objectives among a different set of people. In a similar vein, Diez, Stetter, and Albert (2006) see conflict as a sort of fierce contest between/among people with differing desires, ideas, beliefs, values, or goals. That is, conflict connotes the incompatibility of subject positions. Suffice it to say that opposition or incompatibility spawns conflict. Pia and Diez (2007) state that conflict is not at all time violent. However, if proper steps are not taken, it can escalate to destructive violence. Anifowose (1982) sees conflict simply as a weapon to vent anger. To him, conflict is a tool used in expressing anger against unwarranted situations.

3. Violent Armed Banditry in North West, Nigeria

The North West, an area of 216,065sq of the country’s total land mass with a projected population of over 50 million people who are predominantly farmers, pastoralists and agro-pastoralists, is today ravaged by the unabated menace of armed bandits and criminal gangs (Madubuego & Abah, 2023). Banditry now joins Nigeria’s list of problematic non-state armed groups which includes Boko Haram factions, Niger Delta militants in Nigeria’s south, and separatist groups in the country’s southeast. Though some of the kinds of activities these groups engage in are similar with distinct motives, objectives, and methods, which encompass a wide range of actors (Oluwole, 2024). Armed banditry is characterised by organised criminal activities aimed at attacking, killing, kidnapping, and extorting innocent citizens while destroying their properties and rustling their cattle (Uche&Chijioke, 2018). Motivated primarily by economic opportunities, armed banditry is perpetrated by syndicate groups engaged in intimidation, dispossession, and violence against civilians (Udoma, 2013). These criminal gangs referred to as armed bandits, terrorize local populations and travellers, seizing valuable possessions such as money, merchandise, livestock, and other assets. The manifestations of armed banditry include cattle rustling, attacks, kidnappings, ransom demands, and sexual violence against victims (Abdullahi, 2019). Operating as non-state armed groups, armed bandits exploit societal grievances, resource competition, social displacement, unfavourable government policies, and marginalization to terrorize civilians (Ojo, et al., 2023).

The rise of banditry and armed attacks has severely disrupted the means of livelihood and the distribution of essential services for people across the northwest region of Nigeria. Since 2011, nearly 200,000 people have fled bandits’ violence and remain internally displaced within the northwest region. Approximately 77,000 Nigerians have fled to neighbouring countries, and humanitarian efforts to respond to emergencies in Nigeria, as well as crises in the neighbouring Sahel and Lake Chad, are overstretched. The majorities of those displaced do not receive organised assistance and are in desperate need of necessities (Claire, 2021). While armed bandits typically maintain anonymity, they openly commit violent crimes, reflecting a tactic used by common criminals who view theft as a means to private ends. However, contemporary evidence indicates increasing gender diversity in armed banditry, challenging the traditional patriarchal view and recognizing women's involvement in intelligence, counterintelligence, and logistics (Ojo, et al., 2023).

According to the ACAPS Nigeria (2020), about 1,586 lives have been lost to rural banditry and 318,000 displaced. The current wave of banditry began in 2011 as a mild farmer-herder conflict in the Nigeria North West but has intensified since 2017 with increasing destructions of lives and property. The violence has affected 35 out of 92 local government areas in the four states of North West. The banditry continues to escalate due to the activities of illegal mining of gold in the area, which has also pitched the armed groups against the Nigerian state. A report in March 2020 indicates that more than 210,000 people have been internally displaced and over 35,000 refugees have crossed communal borders of Nigeria into Niger Republic (ACAPS Nigeria, 2020). The most affected states are Kaduna, Zamfara and Katsina states. Ungovernable spaces such as Kamuku, Birnin Gwari, Rugu, Kamara, Kunduma and Sububu forests are used by the bandits as shelter from where they launch attacks on the surrounding communities. In the cause of the attacks, they often rustle cattle, killed people, including children and raped women (Suleiman, 2019). More than 6,319 people were killed between 2011 and 2018, while 190,340 were displaced in Zamfara state alone. In Katsina, over 2,000 people were killed and 500 communities destroyed, while over 33,000 were displaced (Kola, 2020). Between January and December 2019 alone, 1,058 people were killed in Zamfara, Kaduna, Katsina, Sokoto and Niger states. In addition, over 10,000 cattle were rustled, and 2,688 hectares of arable farming land were lost due to displacement and forceful migration. About 10,000 houses were destroyed and over 147,800 vehicles were lost to the bandits in Zamfara state alone (Hamrouni, 2020). Furthermore, 4,000 people were internally displaced in Kaduna State with scores of thousands of deaths between November 2019 and March 2020 (West Africa Network for Peace Building, 2020).

The number of bandit groups in the North West is a subject of conjecture. However, Rufai (2021) opined that there are around 120 bandit camps in the region and bandits own more than 60,000 AK-47 rifles. One of the stakeholders appointed by bandit groups as liaison with the government stated that there are more than 100,000 armed bandits in the North West region (Samson, 2021). A traditional ruler in one of the six states affected by armed banditry in the region claimed that more than 30,000 armed bandits operated in just one of the six states of the geopolitical zone (Attahiru, 2021). Some of these bandits are well-resourced, have a large network of informants and patrons within the larger society and are familiar with the complicated geography of the region (Dipo, 2021). Organizationally, bandit groups operate independently; they do not have formalized structures and identities and are organized around personalities. There are instances of intergroup collaboration, for instance, when there are opportunities for pillage and protection of their operational bases in rural communities and forest reserves from attack (often from formal and informal security actors) (Anka Y, 2020).

Table 1. Major Bandit Leaders in the North West and their Areas of Operations

S/N	ARMED GROUPS	LOCATIONS
1.	Abubakar Abdullah (Dogo Gide)	Kaduna and Niger States
2.	Yellow Jan-Bros	Birinm Gwari Forest & Giwa Areas of Kaduna State
3.	Tsoho Manjagara	Giwa Local Government, Kaduna State
4.	Alhaji Bodere and Alhaji Beleri	Sabon-Birni, Giwa Local Government, Kaduna State
5.	Yellow Ashana	Sabon Garin Gyadam, Kaduna State
6.	Ali Kawaje (Ali Kachalla)	Birnin Gwari, Kaduna
7.	Alhaji Isiya, Buhari General & Gannaie	Kaduna-Abuja Highway, Kaduna
8.	Alhaji Ado Aleru	Yan-Kuzo in Tsafe Local Government Area as well as some parts of Kastina and Zamfara States.
9.	Lanke, Umar Bango, Yahaya, Kabir	Dan Rumfa Village in Jibya Local Government Area
10.	Auwalun Daudawa	Safana Dan-Musa and Batsari Local Government Area, Kastina
11.	Dangottee Bamfare	Along Katsina and Zamfara.
12.	Alhaji Auta, Ardo Na-Shaware, Ado Nashama and Alhaji Shingi	Birmni-Magaji Local Government Area, Zamfara State
13.	Dankarami	Zurmi Local Government, Zamfara State
14.	Alhaji Shehu Rekep and Alhaji Halilu	Tsafe, Maru and Anka Local Government Areas, Zamfara State
15.	Manu, D O	Birnin Gwari and Giwa Areas of Kaduna State
16.	Saleh Piya-Piya	Anchau, Kaduna State
17.	Bello Turji	Shinkafi/Isa and Sabon-Birnin

Source: Rufai, (2021: 25).

The armed bandits maintain a decentralised structure with little or no coordination across multiple groups that exist, and their motivations are multidimensional, making it difficult to effectively approach them and address the crisis through dialogue. The bandits equally operate like flies, as they attack vulnerable targets and easily take cover in the forests and communities, making them less distinguishable from the civilian population, and this has made it very difficult for the security agencies to effectively deal with them without raising human rights and environmental concerns (Samuel, et al., 2023). Clearly put, A. Yusuf (2020) posits that organisationally, bandit groups operate independently; they do not have formalised structures and identities and are organised around personalities. There are instances of intergroup collaboration, for instance, when there are opportunities for pillage and protection of their operational bases in rural communities and forest reserves from attack (often from formal and informal security actors). Operationally and resource-wise, bandit groups do collaborate.

Based on the data compiled by the ACLED project, bandit attacks were sporadic from 2010 to 2017, reaching their peak in 2014 with 64 incidents. However, since 2018, the number of attacks has been steadily escalating, surging from 124 incidents in 2018 to 1,031 incidents in 2022. The ACLED estimate reveals a staggering 13,485 deaths attributed to banditry between 2010 and May 19, 2023. And actual numbers may be higher, since the ACLED data rely on information provided by local groups and media reports.

Trends of violent attacks by bandits across the study area outlined in Figure 1 (2010 – May 2023) Source: Armed Conflict Location and Event Data (ACLED)

Both the Nigerian state and the affected sub-national entities have responded to the threat of armed banditry in the North West with kinetic and non-kinetic measures respectively. The Nigerian government formally declared bandits as terrorists in November 2021. This designation meant tougher sanctions under the Terrorism Prevention Act for suspected bandit gunmen, as well as their informants and supporters, such as those caught in providing these criminals with arms, fuel, and food. More importantly, the federal government has considered counter-insurgency operations and the human rights imperatives of deploying sophisticated military hardware against the bandits (in the context of international convention regarding how, when, and against whom such hardware can be used) (Oluwole, 2024). The federal government has deployed a combination of military and paramilitary forces against armed bandits in the region. Some state governments in the region have also resorted to political engagements, hostage, or ceasefire negotiations, offers of amnesty, ransom or peace payment, and other concessions, and sponsors of extra-state security outfits to address the crisis. In addition, many local governments and community authorities in the affected region have sponsored and engaged in local peace building and crime-fighting initiatives, such as inter-communal dialogues and the maintenance of vigilante groups. These among others have generated a multidimensional state response against armed banditry in North West Nigeria, with little results (Folahanmi, 2022). However, heightened public pressure on the political leadership has promoted an overreliance on kinetic measures, especially by the Federal Government (Premium Times, 2021). The Nigerian military has deployed thousands of its personnel to join the police and other security agencies in conducting internal security operations against armed bandits in the North West geopolitical zone of the country. This includes the deployment of special operations forces which is responsible for a series of operations, where many armed bandits have been killed or arrested, their sanctuaries and assets destroyed, and some of their attacks foiled or countered, hostages rescued and the lives and properties of affected population were protected, in manners that arguably minimise their threats in the region. In other instances, these have included responses intended at winning the hearts and minds of the affected local communities by the military (Folahanmi, 2023).

Informal security actors such as vigilantes have played an increasing role in protecting their communities from bandit groups. Vigilante groups are often preferred over the police because official security agencies are often unavailable when rural communities most needed them. Although these informal security providers play essential roles in providing safety and security to their communities, many lack proper security training and often compete against one other. In addition, many vigilante groups have committed human rights abuses, armed robbery, corruption, and extortion against bandits and members of the communities they vow to protect. While the security response has pushed back attacks, destroyed hideouts, and killed and arrested hundreds of bandits, attacks still continue. In 2019, a peace deal was secured between the armed bandits and the Governors of Katsina, Sokoto, and Zamfara states. The deal encompassed disarmament, release of kidnapped civilians, and pardon for the bandits. Although the number of fatalities decreased from August to November due to reconciliation initiatives, attacks picked up again in 2020. Though routinely denied, the Nigerian Federal and State authorities have often paid ransom to keep victims alive and secure their release. Mass kidnappings have become a major source of income for criminal and extremist groups since Nigerian authorities often pay ransom to keep victims alive and secure their release, but this also provides an incentive for bandits to continue their malign activities (Claire, 2021).

4. Causes and Drivers of Armed Banditry

There have been debates on what would have been the causal drivers for the surge in armed banditry in the North West region of Nigeria. Scholars agree that multiple factors, rather than a single one, are responsible. These includes: porous borders and uncontrolled migration, ungoverned spaces, fragile security, informal security and jungle justice dimension, youth unemployment, proliferation of small arms and light weapons, climate-induced migration and resource competition, amongst others.

Endemic Poverty as an Indicator of the Challenging Human Welfare – North West and many other parts of Nigeria are characterized by endemic poverty. Focusing on poverty, unemployment, education, standard of living, and healthcare, the United Nations Development Programme’s report on Multidimensional Poverty Index (MPI) shows that five of the ten states with endemic poverty in Nigeria are from the North West (Oyewole, et.al, 2022). Thus, poverty and armed banditry are inextricably linked. Consequently, the high level of poverty in the Northern region contributes to the emergence of armed banditry in the affected states. The poor human welfare in the region can be considered as a major source of frustration and aggression. Also, those that are involved in banditry and other armed resistance or criminal violence in the region could have embraced such way of live as a strategy to survive harsh condition of living.

Porous Borders and Uncontrolled Migration - North West region accounts for two-third of Nigeria’s 1,497km international land border with the Niger Republic. This expanse is weakly regulated as communities along the borderline share cultural, religious and historical ties, hence, regional protocols on freedom of movement have created opportunities for traffickers, smugglers and criminals to engage in their nefarious activities in firearm, drugs and human trafficking. The recent closure to stem rice smuggling and the corona virus pandemic had a far-reaching effect on controlling illegal border crossing (Reuter, 2020). There is also a continuous inflow of non-Nigerians into these criminal groups across the region’s poorly policed 800-kilometre international boundaries with the Benin Republic and the Republic of Niger (Goodluck Jonathan Foundation, 2021). Equally worrisome is the cross-border kidnapping for ransom across the Nigerian–Nigerien international border (Idrees, 2020).

The Resource-Curse Dimension - Armed banditry has been further triggered by resource-curse in the North West. The discovery of gold and illegal mining activities has further contributed to the existence and activities of armed criminal groups, including armed banditry. It was claimed that 80% of mineral resources exploration, especially gold mining, are being carried out illegally (Oluwole, 2024). The emergence of illegal gold mining and the involvement of foreign corporations are indicators of poor governance, structural and institutional decay, and ungoverned spaces in the region (Ogbonaya, 2020). Some of the illegal miners are politically connected individuals with foreign networks, who transport such natural resources through Niger and Togo, from where they are finally transported abroad, such as Dubai, China and beyond. Poor youths are being recruited and mobilized for such an illegal occupation – artisanal mining. In this case, non-state armed groups are sponsored by millionaire and billionaire entrepreneurs that are involved in illegal gold mining to protect their interests against affected communities, rival business entities, stakes of competing political class, and the state security forces. Amidst these, armed bandits and gangs have emerged with activities that often target sites and workers of rival informal gold miners, hostile or less cooperative communities, security outposts and formations, anti-status quo policymakers and their supporters. This reveals the problems of governance in the country and continued to heighten the security tension in the region (Sunday Ojo, et.al, 2023).

Ungoverned Spaces and Fragile Security - The criminal activities of armed bandits in the North West are made possible due to several ungoverned spaces that foster these criminal groups. States like Zamfara, Kaduna, Katsina, and Kebbi are leading hotspots of armed banditry in the North West. About 35 out of 92 Local Government Areas (LGAs) have been reportedly affected in the North West (Ogbonnaya, 2020). After years of conflict and favourable land ownership laws for farmers over herders, herders turned to violent criminal lifestyles. They have since set up camps in Rugu Forest, in Zamfara state, mainly composed of Fulanis and Hausas. Dajin Rugu forest covers three states: Zamfara, Katsina, and Kaduna. Falgore forest in Kano state, which was upgraded to a game reserve in the 1960s, spreads across three LGAs, covering Doguwa, Sumaila, and Tundun Wada. Kuduru and Kamuku, Kuyambana, Sububu, and Burwaye forests are some of the deadliest enclaves of armed banditry in the region. Kaduna also houses a large portion of the Kamuku forest which further spreads along Niger, Zamfara, Kebbi, and Katsina, states (Daily Trust, February 27, 2021). These ungoverned enclaves became hidden territories for attacking nearby communities and travellers across Kaduna, Katsina, Sokoto, Kebbi, and Niger states. In 2019, Zamfara state was estimated to have more than 10,000 bandits across 40 camps (International Crisis Group, 2017). The weakness of the institutional capacity of the Federal and State governments in forest management, and the declining role of local government authorities in managing local affairs, offer armed bandits the opportunities to emerge and utilize such ungoverned spaces for their capacity building and criminal activities. Furthermore, armed bandits have exploited the ineffective and deteriorating security climate across Nigeria to perpetuate their agenda. One of the latest factors has been the weak security architecture, specifically the allegation of police extortion, which has led individuals to engage in armed banditry rather than seeking justice (Jaafar, 2018).

Informal Security and Jungle Justice Dimension - Informal security and jungle justice are also prominent among the factors that trigger armed banditry in North West, Nigeria. In the wake of herder-farmer conflicts and criminal attacks that swept through the North West, Hausa communities dominated by farmers began to mobilise themselves to form vigilante outfits known as Yan sakai (volunteer guards). This is considered an informal security architecture that has filled the vacuum of state security. The tools used to combat insecurity are locally made guns, machete, clubs, and traditional weapons. In addition, many vigilante groups target pastoralist communities of Fulani descent, accusing them of crimes. Such informal security outfits have resulted in extrajudicial killings, torture, unlawful arrests, and cattle confiscations, thereby, contributing to the problems rather than the solution. Additionally, the Fulani settlements are usually destroyed, forcing the pastoralists to flee into the forests. This strategy has exacerbated the relationship between the Hausa farmers and the Fulani pastoralists. Fulani pastoralists have also formed militias to counter Hausa farmers’ informal security arrangements. Between 2011 and 2014, the formation of armed groups was portrayed as a form of self-defence and ethnic camaraderie, while some Fulani pastoralists were driven by economic motivation, thus, escalating the violence (International Crisis Group, 2020).

Youth Unemployment - Youth unemployment is also a trigger to banditry. It is estimated that over 20 million youths (between the age brackets of 20 - 40) were not gainfully employed in the six states of the North West zone, occasioned with poor literacy rates. These conditions predisposed these young people to criminalities. The majority of them serve in different layers (informants, drugs, transportation, food vendors) of the banditry industry in Zamfara, Kaduna and Katsina (Madubuego&Abah, 2023). In addition, Rufai (2021) stresses that politicians in Zamfara state sponsored and armed some youths as political thugs to achieve their political ambitions in 2011. The youth were abandoned after winning the elections, and then went into drug abuse, cattle stealing, and robbery and later transformed into armed gangs, attacking villages. The first motorbikes used in the attacks were donations from politicians during election campaigns.

Proliferation of Small Arms and Light Weapons - The increasing prevalence of cattle rustling as part of the broader problems of banditry, is likely linked to the availability of small arms and light weapons in the hands of non-state actors (Gadzama, et al., 2018). This is primarily due to the porous borders which facilitate the smuggling of these weapons into the country (Gadzama, et al., 2018). According to Ojewale, (2021), the porous Nigeria-Niger border, spanning 1,497 km with inadequate policing, has further enabled criminal groups in the North West to obtain sophisticated weapons. More so, Gaye (2018) posited that there has been an incremental influx of small arms and light weapons (SALWs) into Nigeria from the Sahel since the fall of Ghadaffi’s regime in Libya. These arms and weapons end up in the hands of non-state actors like terrorists, militants and bandits, who use them to terrorise individuals and communities. In September 2018, military troops in joint operations with personnel of the Department of State Service (DSS) arrested two suspected illicit arms dealers along Funtua-Gusau road with 1,479 rounds of 7.62mm (special) ammunition, on their way to deliver the weapons to armed bandits (Adeniyi 2018). Incidents such as this have been prevalent in the various states of North-western Nigeria where banditry has become the order of the day (Okoli&Ugwu, 2019).

Climate-Induced Migration and Resource Competition - Climate-induced migration, displacement and resource competition are prominent among the triggers of armed banditry in North West, Nigeria. The conflict over natural resources, such as land, water and pastures between nomadic cattle herders and farmers, triggered by climate change, is one of the primary drivers of armed banditry. The increasing population that triggered resource competition and ineffective land dispute resolution are the escalated discord in the North West. This, among others, has triggered a series of farmer-herder conflicts in the region. Among the leading causes were the decisions of the Zamfara State Government to clear extensive forests and cattle grazing reserves in its part of the Kuyanbana forest and the Gidan Jaja areas of Maru and Zurmi LGAs for farming. Due to the policy, many Fulani hamlets were forced to move between Dansadau and Maradun to Zurmi axes of the state. In these areas, the Fulani cattle herders were previously the victims of hostility and extortion of corrupt district heads, farmers, and police, with weak justice system. This was long before the policy of eviction of pastoralists was enacted. The effect of these conditions resulted in the creation and radicalisation of a fragmented group of dispossessed, deprived, and frustrated Fulani. As such, banditry started as criminal cow theft and destruction of farms, but has since become more dynamic lucrative business. This factor gave birth to the rise of some of the earliest known armed groups by the Fulanis simply known as Kundu and Buharin Daji. Others are Kungiyar gayu (the Young Guys’ Association), popularly known as Kungiyar Barayin Shanu (the Cattle Rustlers’ Association) (Ojo, et al., 2023).

5. Banditry as Symbols of Barbarism and Limits of Human Nature

This is the new wave of crisis emerging in Nigeria's North West region with the ongoing activities of armed groups referred to locally as "bandits" in six states, namely Zamfara, Katsina, Sokoto, Kaduna, Niger and Kebbi. Attacks have included shooting and killing, cattle rustling, kidnapping, rape, torching of entire villages, and looting of valuables; and a numbers of fatalities and displaced people have continued to increase. While more than 1,100 people were killed in 2018 in the six states, over 2,200 were killed in 2019, and more than 1,600 fatalities were recorded between January and June 2020 (Council on Foreign Relations, 2020). By September 2019, such attacks had internally displaced over 160,000 people and produced more than 41,000 refugees (World Food Programme, 2019; and United Nation High Commissioner for Refugees, 2019). The number of displaced persons now stands at over 247,000 IDPs and 60,000 refugees (Selim, 2020). Targeted attacks on farmers throughout the years have made cultivation and harvest impossible in those areas.

Within a spate of eight (8) years, several casualties have been recorded, while several millions of Nigerian naira had been lost through bandits and banditry activities. According to the West Africa Network for Peace building (WANEP):

[…] armed banditry recorded a death toll of over 1,058 people in Zamfara, Kaduna, Katsina, Sokoto, and Niger States between January and December 2019…. a total of 6,319 deaths including women and children between June 2011 and May 2019 in the State. Additionally, an estimated 4,983 women were widowed, 25,050 children orphaned, and 190,340 others internally displaced between June 2011 and May 2019 in Zamfara state. In Katsina state, over 2,000 people have been killed, 500 communities destroyed and over 33,000 people displaced. Further reports also revealed that over 10,000 cattle were lost, while 2,688 hectares of farmlands and 10,000 houses were destroyed within 2011 and mid 2018 in Zamfara state. Also, the state recorded the loss of 147,800 vehicles and motorcycles between June 2011 and May 2019. In November 2019, an estimated 4,000 people were also internally displaced in Shiroro LGA of Niger state alone (West Africa Network for Peace building, 2020).

Bandits have warned farmers to stay away from their farms, and about 26 farmers who ignored this order were killed in Batsari LGA of Katsina state (Orjinmo, 2020). Farmers have been kidnapped for ransom, while bandits in Shiroro LGA have demanded payments of up to $1,100 before farmers can access their farmlands (Muhammed, 2020). Cattle rustlings have also hampered animal husbandry in these areas. Violence and forced displacement had left affected communities unable to rely on own-produced cereals for subsistence and commercial farming, thus, heightening the risk of food insecurity for displaced and non-displaced populations (Anka, 2017). About 70% of the 309,000 IDPs in the North West have insufficient food, with global acute malnutrition rates among children reported to be as high as 18% and 31% in Sokoto and Zamfara states respectively (WFP, 2019).

In the same manner, over 30.6 million people living in the six affected states are exposed to danger due to the escalation of the crisis without any form of protection. Since 2016, almost daily attacks by bandits have been recorded in Zamfara, Katsina, and Sokoto, which prompted the Nigerian Government to institute various security operations in the North West. The risk of getting kidnapped specifically for ransom was seriously increasing, (Orijinmo, 2020). Women and girls are susceptible to kidnap, sexual violence, and abuse, including rape. As banditry attacks have continued, the affected population has expressed a lack of trust towards the army and police and their ability to prevent the reoccurrence of this ugly development. Residents and survivors in affected states have complained that response from the police and army were slow, and sometimes none at all in case of attacks (Council on Foreign Relations, 2020). Thus, banditry by all accounts is undermining security, peace and development of Nigeria's North West region. While the unfolding crises could be linked to a set of factors, the threat to security in the region already reeling from the effects of a decade-long Boko Haram insurgency in the North East cannot be over-stated. Therefore, affected communities started relying on local vigilantes for protection as a result. In certain cases, people armed themselves to resist attacks and government's focus on fighting Boko Haram insurgency in the North East may also be hindering the strength of its response to insecurity in the North West.

6. Taming Human Excesses: Islamic Principles of Governance

Muslim scholars unanimously contend that banditry and kidnapping are forms of waging war against a society, translating it under the context of hiraba. According to Abulfadl, (2020), Hiraba in the Islamic context literally means ‘waging war against society’ and in Islamic jurisprudence traditionally, it refers to ‘acts such as killing non-combatants (the resident and way farer)’, "assassinations, setting fires, or poisoning water wells", crimes “so serious and repugnant" that their perpetrators were "not to be given quarters or sanctuary anywhere (Abulfadl 2020). Another source maintained that many Islamic scholars interpret the references to acts that defy universal codes such as intentionally killing of civilians during warfare or causing random destruction. According to Kadiri (most classical jurisprudence school, established a thousand or so years ago), Hiraba referred specifically to banditry in open country: a uniquely destabilizing threat to civil order in a pre-modem society. The crime is sometimes lumped together with fasad fi-l-'ard (spreading corruption in the land), which is mentioned alongside waging ‘war against Allah’ (SWT) and His Prophet (peace be upon him). Allah says in the Glorious Qur’an:

Those who wage war against Allah and His Messenger, and go about the earth spreading mischief, indeed their recompense is that they either be stoned to death, or be crucified, or have their hands and feet cut off from the opposite sides or be banished from the land. Such shall be their degradation in this world; and a mighty chastisement lies in store for them in the World to come - except for those who repent before you have overpowered them. Know well that Allah is All-Forgiving, All-Compassionate (Q 5:33-34).

Abulfadl explains that the expression 'to wage war against Allah and His Messenger denotes war against the righteous order established in the state or a country. It is Allah's purpose, and it is for this very purpose that Allah sent His Messengers, that a righteous order of life be established on earth; in order that it would provide peace and security to everything found on earth; an order under whose benign shadow humanity would be able to attain its perfection; an order under which the resources of the earth would be exploited in a manner conducive to man's progress and prosperity rather than to his ruin and destruction’ (Abulfadl, 2020).

Islamic Principles of Governance - Etymologically, peace and Islam are derived from the same Arabic verb “salama” which literally means ‘to submit, to bow or surrender’. Peace and Islam are considered synonymous because the concluding words of the daily prayers of every Muslim are words of peace, thus, as-Salam alaykum (i.e., May the Peace be upon you) (Abdalati, 1986). Therefore, every Muslim who approaches Allah cannot fail to be at peace with Allah, with himself and with his fellow men. It is by submitting to Allah that human beings can achieve true peace (Qur’an 13:28-29; 31:22-24).

Among the favours of Islam upon mankind is that it provides comprehensive ways of educating people and brings up generations, establishing nations and civilisations and setting up the principles of glory and urbanisation. That is to convert misleading humanity from darkness of polytheism, ignorance, misguidance and chaos, to the light of monotheism, parenting, science, guidance and stability (Hamdan, 2014). In Islam, there is no tolerance for acts of terrorism or oppression of any kind whatsoever (Qur’an 7:56). As a religion, Islam is strongly opposed to violence and crimes. This threat can be avoided by adhering to Islamic values and teachings. Below are Islamic principles of governance, but not limited to:

        i.            Mutual Consultation (As-Shura)

      ii.            Accountability (Hisab)

    iii.            Transparency

    iv.            Justice (Adl)

      v.            Equality

Mutual Consultation (As-Shura) - One of the fundamental constitutional principles in Islamic system of governance is mutual consultation (i.e., Shura). It is responsible for all the affairs of Muslims. This term simply means seeking the experts’ judgment and then acting upon them (Mabid, 2017). The Qur’an mentions Shura when it refers to those “who (conduct) their affairs by mutual Consultation” (42:38) in the list of people that will have a lasting reward with Allah. Prophet Muhammad (Sallalahu Alaihi wasallam, [S.A.W.]) was directed to make consultations “… and consult them in the affairs. Then when you have taken a decision, put your trust in Allah,” (Qur’an 3:159). Hence, Shura is a binding Islamic principle. It therefore implies that ruling authorities should take all decisions and actions based on the opinions of the majority in regards to the actions that emphasize national interest, such as security and actions that go against it. They must implement the actions in favour of national interest and abstain from others that run against it. Being panacea to the challenges of banditry, the Nigeria authority at both the federal and state levels should endeavour to apply this principle of mutual consultation of Islam, by inviting every concerned individual for negotiation on common matter with attainable resolutions.

Accountability (Hisab) - In the Glorious Qur'an, the word hisab is repeated more than forty times in different verses. Examples of such include: Qur’an 2:202; 13:18, 21, 40 & 41; 24:39; 84:8; 88:26. Hisab or 'account' is the root of accounting, and the references in the Glorious Qur'an are to 'account' in its generic sense, relating to one's responsibility to ‘account’ before Allah on all matters relating to the human efforts for which every Muslim is ‘accountable.’ The Muslims believe regarding accountability that they will be judged for whatever they do in this world in the Hereafter (life after death). In Islam, it is the duty of every Muslim to fulfil Allah's will, seek His pleasure, and strive for the promised rewards in the afterlife (Qur’an 69:19-20). This requires that every action and word in this world aligns with Islamic teachings. Whether it is performing Ibadah (worship) like Salat (prayer) or engaging in daily activities like eating, sleeping, or investing in the stock market, Muslims must adhere to the Islamic framework (Yunus, 2017). This is supported in the following Qur’anic verse where Allah says:

"....Lo, the hearing, the sight and the heart . . . .  each of these will be asked” (Q17:36).

Thus, it requires every individual in the position of authority to imbibe this principle to serve as check and balance in managing every word and action in this world and tailor it to be in line with the Islamic teachings. From the above view, it could be said that governance in Islam involves the ability of the country’s political leadership to perform its duties with the objective of satisfying the needs of the public based on the principles of Islam.

Transparency - Allah has divulged the concept of transparency in the following verse:

O you who believe! When you deal with each other, in transactions involving future obligations in a fixed period, reduce them to writing. Let a scribe write down faithfully as between the parties […] (Qur'an 2:282).

This verse states that every transaction must be written to demonstrate transparency and avoid injustice. Transparency involves an open and established system of government, the eradication of corruption, and the institutionalisation of a fair, just, and rule-of-law-based system. Transparency in governance is crucial for growth, as it helps eliminate corruption and promote accountability in government operations. The pursuit of transparent performance has become a global trend, exemplified by organisations like Transparency International (Yunus, 2017).

Justice (Adl) – Islam while recognising the fact that security will be elusive in a society where there is injustice, lays great emphasis on justice and fair play. It enjoins those in authority to deal justly with every individual and every section of the State. Islam frowns against discrimination and not giving a person their right on account of being a minority, so long as they are citizens of a place under jurisdiction. Islam stipulates that whatever rights and privileges those who belong to the majority tribes enjoy must equally be enjoyed by the minority. The implication of this is that no section should be marginalised or treated as second class citizens. In this regard, Al-Qurān in Chapter 5 verse 8 admonishes thus: “and let not the hatred of others make you swerve to wrong and depart from justice”. (Also see Qur’an 4:135). It is instructive therefore, for any nation that wishes to stem the tide of insecurity to know that peace and security will remain elusive as long as there is injustice. Allah has categorically stated in verse 82 of Chapter 6 that peace and security will not be attainable with faith alone but in conjunction with justice (Jami'u, 2013).

Equality - The principle of equality was established in the Qur'an and Sunnah and expanded upon during Islam's development, setting a precedent in Islamic law for its time and place. Islamic governance standards require that people have equal rights, liberties, duties, and public responsibilities, without discrimination based on sex, ethnic origin, language, or creed (Qur’an 49:13; 4:1; 30:20 & 21). This equality is legal, meaning that people in similar circumstances should be judged by the same rules. The Qur'an and the Prophet's traditions have instituted this principle. Prophet Muhammad (Sallalahu Alaihi wasallam, [S.A.W.]) says: "Your God is One; your forefather is one; the red are not preferred to the black, nor the Arabs to non-Arabs, except in piety." (Musnad Ahmad, Hadith No.23489). The connection between human equality and Tawhid (the unity of God) is significant. (Jami'u, 2013). The perception of unfairness and inequality among minorities in the North West, particularly in their pursuit of justice, has been cited as a root cause of their decision to take up arms and engage in banditry in rural communities. Therefore, both the government and citizens must proactively promote equality in all aspects of life to foster peace and stability.

Good governance, policies and programmes of positive impact on the people, as well as transparency and accountability are salient ingredients for promoting and sustaining mutual coexistence and patriotism.

The above are in line with the teachings of Islam as demonstrated in the course of Islamic History.

7. Conclusion

Armed banditry is indeed an enormous challenge to the security and development of the North West and Nigeria in general. The rapidity of its spread and intensity amid government responses overwhelm and deteriorate national security crisis (emanating from Boko Haram-ISWAP terrorism in the North East and Fulani herders’ menace in North Central and South West, and unknown gunmen insurgency in South East). Frightening incidents and situations undoubtedly have shown that armed banditry is a new dimension of terrorism in Nigeria with the intent to further destabilise the North and perhaps extend to South, if not checked or mitigated. Though their operations are limited in isolation of central or unitary command structure, but heavily infiltrated by criminal elements from neighbouring sovereign states and enjoy robust sponsorship in Nigeria and foreign countries. To this end, the paper recommends thus:

1. The vast forested and rural landscapes in the Nigeria’s remote hinterlands should be ‘governed’ through a pragmatic community policing strategy that involves local vigilantes and neighbourhood watch groups.
2. Payment of kidnap ransom should be discouraged, and possibly criminalised, so as to dispirit the quest for kidnapping as a source of money making.
3. The federal government through the Nigeria’s security agencies should invest in heavily in technology-driven solutions such as digital surveillance systems, geospatial intelligence, and data analytics to enhance situational awareness and intelligence gathering. Advanced technologies can help identify hotspots of criminal activities, track movements of criminal networks, and facilitate rapid response by security forces. Additionally, mobile applications and communication platforms can empower citizens to report suspicious activities and seek assistance in real-time, enhancing community participation in security efforts.
4. Establishment of community-centred intelligence gathering mechanisms that should involve local communities as active partners in identifying and reporting security threats. Train community members to recognize suspicious activities, gather actionable intelligence, and collaborate with law enforcement agencies in intelligence sharing. These initiatives can enhance early warning capabilities and facilitate targeted interventions to prevent banditry and kidnapping incidents.

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