Citation: Mustapha, A.B. & Hardawa, H.S. (2025). A Stylistic Analysis of the Metrical Patterns in Selected Nigerian Poems. Tasambo Journal of Language, Literature, and Culture, 4(2), 70-78. www.doi.org/10.36349/tjllc.2025.v04i02.009.
A STYLISTIC ANALYSIS OF THE METRICAL PATTERNS IN SELECTED NIGERIAN POEMS
By
Ahmed Baba MUSTAPHA
ahmed.mustapha@bosu.edu.ng
+2347031202412
Department of English and Literary Studies
Borno State University
&
Haruna Shuaibu HARDAWA
hardawa.academics@gmail.com
+2347033040327
Department of English
Aminu Saleh College of Education, Azare
Bauchi State
Abstract
This paper examines the metrical patterns in selected Nigerian poems to highlight the stylistic features. In the paper, two models are simultaneously adopted: Halle-Keyser’s stress maxima and the extension model of Beaver. These two models are used in the analysis of the three poems selected from ‘A Special Collection of African Poems’ (To the Women of New Africa by Dennis Osadebay; The Stars Have Departed by Christopher Okigbo; and The Mesh by Kwesi Brew). The lines in the poems are categorized based on their types to identify stress maxima and describe them in relation to stress maxima identified in them and the rhythmic effects they have. The stylistic analysis shows that the poets of the selected poems, as a matter of style, did not allow the occurrence of iambic lines to dominate their poems; however, the occurrence of stress maxima is maintained in all the lines. A combination of different types of lines dominates the poems. Therefore, stress maxima can be applied to different metrical lines, not only to iambic lines.
Keywords: Metrical analysis, Metrical lines, Rhythmic pattern, Prosodic meter, Metrical phonology, Stress maxima
Introduction
According to Katamba (1989), metrical phonology is an approach or framework developed for the analysis of stress maxima (henceforth, SM). To McCarthy and Hayes (2003), it is seen as belonging to the sub-theory of generative phonology, which characterizes the properties of stress and stress principles. They add that metrical theory is not concerned with stress as a feature but as a hierarchical rhythmic patterning of speech. From the view of Clark and Yallop (1990), it is shown that it started from mere assumptions concerning the nature of stress, intonation, and interpretation. To synthesize these ideas, it is right to say that metrical phonology is concerned with the description of stress and rhythm. Stress is the prominence realized on a syllable in a word. Or, it is a part of a word that is pronounced with a louder degree than the other(s). Rhythm is a strong, regular, repeated pattern of sound. These two terms are very important in metrical analysis. Metrical analysis is based on prosodic analysis and was developed by Firth and his students in London in 1950. The analysis is done based on the syllables contained, in consideration of the stress and rhythm. Traces of SM are identified and analyzed in each line. The data for this study is downloaded from the internet. The data is analyzed based on the theory of SM proposed by Bearver. This theory is a further step to Halle and Keyser’s theory of SM. Halle and Keyser’s SM is used for analysis based on iambic pentameter with a ten-syllable line following the pattern of even-number SM (Elgin, 1973) cited in Aminu, Sheriff, and Tijjani (2002). Consider the following example given by Halle and Keyser based on iambic pentameter, which is cited in (ibid).
He saw the boy ran out on Mon- day night.
This example illustrates the occurrence of SM following the even-number pattern of 2,4,6,8, etc. The fact that this theory was built on to take care of only iambic pentameter on metical analysis (Aminu, Sheriff &Tijjani), Beaver came up with a theory, an extension to that, to consider other metrical analyses involving trochaic, trimester, and tetrameter.
Usman (2023) illustrated a fine example; thus:
I | saw | the | ship | sail | in | on | Christ- | mas | day |
1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 |
Two of the rules of SM are: 1. Iambic pentameter consists of ten syllable positions; 2. SM pins even-numbered positions are all met in the example above.
Review of Literature
This section presents a discursive review of relevant literature to situate the study within the context of metrical phonology. The review covers a conceptual explanation of metrical phonology and an overview of existing studies on metrical phonology.
Stylistics
According to Weber (1996), Stylistics is the description and analysis of the variability of linguistic forms in actual language use. The concepts of ‘style’ and ‘stylistic variation’ in language rest on the general assumption that within the language system, the same content can be encoded in more than one linguistic form, operating at all linguistic levels (e.g., lexicology, syntax, text linguistics, and intonation).
In Stylistics, analysis is therefore carried out in both the style of specific texts and stylistic variation across texts. These texts can be literary or nonliterary. Generally speaking, style may be regarded as a choice of linguistic means, as deviation from a norm, as recurrence of linguistic forms, and as comparison.
Metrical Phonology
The concept of metrics was developed recently to take care of the stress phenomenon with the framework of generative phonology (Usman, 2023). Metrics (as an aspect of prosody) is viewed as an aspect focusing on stressed syllables in poetic lines. Metrical phonology may be defined as ‘a family of sub-theory of generative phonology that intends to characterize insightfully the properties of stress and stress rules’ (McCarthy & Hayes, 2003) cited Usman (2023:51). It is very important to note that metrical theory is not a characteristic of but a hierarchical rhythmic organization of utterances (ibid).
For other scholars like Clark and Yallop (1990), metrical phonology is a point at which an assumption relating to the nature of segmental and supra-segmental representation starts, in that the stress patterns reflect the underlying structure of where the stronger and weaker components are compared. This explains the concern of metrical phonology revolving around the stress and rhythm. At this point, it is important to say that stress is defined so that it can lay a foundation for the overall understanding of the concept.
Stress is seen as an exertion of force on a syllable during articulation (Usman, 2023). This indicates that a stressed syllable is the part of a word where prominence is given in articulation. Examples of stressed and unstressed syllables are given below as culled from Katamba (1986), cited in Usman (2023:51). The stressed syllable is marked S, whereas the unstressed syllable is marked W.
S | W | S | W |
tea- | -cher | pre- | -serve |
The SW formations are examples of strong-weak forms. This explains that the stress is placed on the first syllable, and the syllable is without stress in either form.
Some Studies on Metrical Analysis
There are lots of studies on metrical phonology – notably the study of Katamba (1989), which identifies six kinds of metrical feet used in analyzing SM; they are: iambic, trochee, anapaest, dactyl, spondee, and tribrach. The iambic, trochee, and anapaest, though very common, are used freely by many scholars, whereas the other three are not that common. He explains:
Iambic – light syllable followed by heavy syllable
Trachee – heavy syllable followed by light syllable
Anapaest – two light syllables followed by a heavy syllable
Dactyl – heavy syllable followed by two light syllables
Spondee – two heavy syllables
Tribrach – three light syllables
The study of Katamba showed that iambic pentameter moves towards the right side, which comprises five feet, each of which contains an unstressed (weak) syllable followed by a stressed (strong) one, whereas trochaic moves to the left side, constituting a stressed syllable followed by an unstressed syllable. He accompanied this explanation with an extract from Shakespeare’s Richard III, as follows:
He can not live, I hope and must not die. (Iambic meter)
Another example was by Katamba from William Blake to show the occurrence of trochaic meter.
How the chimney sweeper’s cry (Trochaic meter)
A study by Velleman and Shriberg (1999) examined children with suspected developmental apraxia of speech and their metrical effects. This study concluded that children with such a case do not have consistent syllable omissions regardless of phonological basis. Jehjooh (n.d.) conducted a study on William Blake’s poem “The Lamb.” The study analyzed the poem using Beaver’s SM. The findings show that the rhythm of the poem has a vertical line at the beginning and a horizontal one at the end. The study concluded that the poet presented a different rhythmic pattern in every part of the poem. Wagner (2010) conducted a study examining the perceptual syllable prominence in a database of German speech. Kiparsky’s theory was employed, and the findings show that any correct prediction of a word brings about a good result; the prediction made based on metrical phonology and lexical class is more successful than the syntactic one. The conclusion is that there is a strong connection between received prominence and metrical pattern. Another study by Guero (1974) on the meter of Nursery rhymes was carried out. He used Halle and Keyser’s model, and the result revealed that there is a comparison between the meter in the Nursery rhymes and the Old English alliterative line and the iambic pentameter of Halle and Keyser. The study concluded that there are striking similarities between the metrical pattern of Nursery rhymes and the stress pattern of English.
A study was carried out by Aminu, Sheriff, and Tijani on the metrical analysis of Nigeria’s current national anthem. Beaver’s model was used in the analysis. The iambic, trochee, spondee, and anapaest were identified and marked in bold type. Usman (2023) carried out a similar study on “Metrical Analysis of Selected Kids’ Nursery Poems: A Stress Maxima Approach.” Usman adopted Halle and Keyser’s model along with Beaver’s model, which is an extension of the former. His corpus was drawn from children’s poems for the metrical analysis. The result of the study showed that iambic, trochaic, and anapestic lines were prevalent, and the lines composed of different feet are used in the poems, showing the SM existence in all of them.
Methodology and Theoretical Framework
For this study, three poems are selected from an anthology of poems entitled ‘A Special Collection of African Poems’, collected by Abubakar Othman, to use as the data for this study. The two models are simultaneously adopted, Halle-Keyser’s stress maxima and the extension model of Beaver, in carrying out the study. Beaver’s theory is a further step to Halle and Keyser’s theory of SM. Halle and Keyser’s SM is used for analysis based on iambic pentameter with a ten-syllable line following the pattern of even numbers.
Result and Discussion
It is important to note that the SM can be realized on different levels – the ones realized on even numbers are iambic, while the ones realized on odd numbers are trochaic, lines whose each foot is formed by two light syllable followed by a heavy syllable is anapaestic, one light syllable followed by two heavy is dactyl, three light syllable is tribrach. The author chooses to label the co-occurrence of different feet as ‘combined’. Tables are drawn for the presentation of findings, after which the discussion follows. One table for each poem is presented.
Table 1 presents poem 1: To the Women of New Africa
Line | Stanza 1 | Type of Line | Freq. of SM |
1. | Proud mothers of the coming age 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 | Combined (iambus, tribrach,) | 2 |
2. | ‘Tis good to find you now engaged 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 | Combined (iambus, dactyl, anapaest) | 3 |
3. | Your minds and time your lives to raise 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 | iambus | 3 |
4. | Above the level of bygone days 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 | Iambus
| 3 |
Stanza 2
5. | ‘Tisgood to see you play your part 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 | iambus | 3 |
6. | With spirit and undaunted heart 1 2 3 4 4 5 7 8 | Combined (iambus, tribrach, dactyl) | 2 |
7. | It gives Young Afric’s throbbing soul 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 | Combined (iambus, anapaest) | 2 |
8. | A glimpse of a bright and glorious goal 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 | Combined (iambus, anapaest) | 3 |
9. | God bless you Mothers of our Race 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 | iambus | 2 |
10. | God cause to shine on you His face 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 | iambus | 3 |
11. | And give you strength and all you crave 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 | iambus | 3 |
12. | To bring forth sons and daughters brave 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 | iambus | 3 |
Table 3 presents poem 2: The Stars Have Departed
1. | Stanza 1 | Type of Line | Freq. of SM |
2. | The stars have departed 1 2 3 4 5 6 | Combined (Iambus, trochee) | 2 |
3. | The sky in monocle 1 2 3 4 5 6 | Combined (iambus, trochee) |
|
4. | Surveys the world under 1 2 3 4 5 | Combined (trochee, iambus) | 1 |
Stanza 2
5. | The stars have departed 1 2 3 4 5 6 | Combined (iambus, trochee) | 2 |
6. | And I where am I 1 2 3 4 5 | Combined (trochee, iambic, dactyl ) | 1 |
7. | Stretch stretch O antennae 1 2 3 4 5 6 | Combined (iambus, dactyl) | 2 |
8. | To clutch at this hour 1 2 3 4 5 | Combined (iambus, anapaest) | 1 |
9. | Fulfilling each moment in abroken monody 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 | Combined (dactyl, tribrach, iambus, anapaest) | 3 |
Table 2 presents poem 3: The Mesh
Line | Stanza | Type of Line | Freq. of SM |
1. | We have come to the crossroads 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 | Combined (iambu, trochee, anapaest) | 3 |
2. | And I must either leave or come with you 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 | Iambus | 4 |
4. | I lingered over the choice 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 | Combined (iambus, anapaest, dactyl) | 2 |
5. | But in the darkness of my doubts 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 | Combined (dactyl, anapaest, tribrach) | 1 |
6. | You lifted the lamp of love 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 | Combined (iambus, dactyl) | 1 |
7. | And I saw in your face 1 2 3 4 5 6 | Combined (iambus, anapaest, trochee) | 1 |
8. | The road that I should take 1 2 3 4 5 6 | Iambus | 1 |
Tables 1–3 above present data extracted from the selected poems, all of which are collected and compiled by Abubakar Othman. These tables show the occurrence of SM in different types of metrical lines. These lines include iambus; the occurrence is in poem 1 and poem 3, and a combination of different feet types therein referred to as ‘combined’ metrical lines, as illustrated under the column Type of Line.
The purpose of the study, therefore, is to identify SM and analyze its frequency of occurrence in each line of the stanza. The tables show that all the lines in all three poems contain SM; but, for demonstration, in each poem, a few lines are taken for the analysis, and where there is only one line of what is required, it shall be considered. It should be noted that only one heavy syllable flanked by one light syllable on each side is considered as SM. Again, each line and each poem is numbered for referential purposes. Furthermore, the examples and slots/syllables are numbered for the purpose of description.
The uniqueness of this study is that the poems selected demonstrate uncommonness in the sense that only poems 1 and 3 show the occurrence of iambic lines. The other poem (poem 2) shows only combined lines. This shows that not every poem exhibits a single line of iambus, trochee, dactyl, and spondee. However, the poems (1, 2 & 3) are dominated by combined lines.
SM Identified in Iambic Line
It should be borne in mind that SM occurs on a heavy syllable flanked by a light syllable on each side, as stated earlier. The feet are made up of one light syllable followed by a heavy syllable. In each line drawn, there is such a line. The uniqueness of this study is that only poem 1 contains iambus, not combining with other types. The lines of the poems are numbered in accordance with their lines in their respective poems. Now let us take each and see:
Poem 1: To the Women of New Africa
SMSMSM
3.
Your | minds | and | time | your | lives | to | rise |
1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 |
SMSMSM
5.
It's | good | to | see | you | play | your | part |
1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 |
Poem 3: The Mesh
2.
And | I | must | ei- | ther | leave | or | come | with | you |
1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 |
8.
The | road | that | I | should | take |
1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 |
The above examples show that the SM is on a syllable numbered even. This indicates that the lines are iambic. Coincidentally, all the lines contain three SMs, and in each line the eighth word is stressed; however, it is not marked as SM because it does not occur between two light syllables. In example 3, the first SM is flanked by syllable 1 to the left and syllable 3 to the right, and all other SMs on the same line are flanked by odd-numbered syllables surrounding them. This pattern also applies to example 5.
SM Identified in Combined Metrical Line
The study revealed some lines contain more than one type of metrical foot. In such instances, the author chooses to label them ‘combined’ as earlier stated. This characteristic of the combined metrical line dominates the three poems selected. Except in poem 1 where only two lines identified as iambic lines, all other lines are combined consisting of iambus + tribrach; iambus + anapaest + trochee; dactyl + anapaest + tribrach; iambus + anapaest; iambus + dactyl; trochee + anapaest; iambus + trochee + anapaest; iambus + trochee + anapaest; trochee + iambius + dactyl; and, trochee + iambus + dactyl respectively. For example:
Poem 1: To the Women of New Africa
SM in Iambic + Tribrach Metrical Line
1.
Proud | mo- | thers | of | the | co- | ming | age |
1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 |
SM in Iambic + Trochee Metrical Line
4.
A- | bove | the | le- | vel | of | by- | gone | days |
1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 |
7.
It | gives | young | Africa's | thro- | bbing | soul |
1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 |
SM in Iambic + Anapaest Metrical Line
8.
A | glimpse | of | a | bright | and | glo- | rious | goal |
1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 |
SM in Iambic + Anapaest + Dactyl Metrical Line
1.
It's | good | to | find | you | now | en- | gaged |
1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 |
In poem 1, each of the combined lines contains SM. In Lines 1, 2, 7, and 8, 3 SMs are identified and each one flanked by two light syllables in their respective slots. Line 4 stands out with 4 SMs. This pattern is usual in poems. The poet’s choice of diction and line serves a purpose.
Poem 2: The Stars Have Departed
SM in Iambic + Dactyl Metrical Line
1.
The | stars | have | de- | par- | ted |
1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 |
2.
The | sky | in | mo- | no- | cle |
1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 |
SM in Iambic + Trochaic Metrical Line
1.
Sur- | veys | the | world | under |
1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 |
5.
The | stars | have | de- | par- | ted |
1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 |
SM in Iambic + Anapaest Metrical Line
8.
To | clutch | at | this | hour |
1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 |
Worthy of note is the fact that poem 2 does not contain iambic pentameter and iambic + tribrach line, which poem 1 has. In the poem, SM is identified in each combined line. Furthermore, only iambic + dactyl has two lines and all others have one-line type with SM. SM is identified in two slots in each line – this is a unique characteristic.
Poem 3: The Mesh
SM in Iambic + Dactyl Metrical Line
6.
You | lif | ted | the | lamp | of | love |
1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 |
SM in Iambic, Trochaic, Anapaest Metrical Line
1.
We | have | come | to | the | cross- | roads |
1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 |
7.
And | I | saw | in | your | face |
1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 |
SM in Iambic, Anapaest, Dactyl Metrical Line
4.
I | lin | gered | o | ver | choice |
1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 |
SM in Dactyl + Anapaest + Tribrach Metrical Line
5.
But | in | the | dark | ness | of | my | doubts |
1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 |
This poem The Mesh is unique in the sense that it has only one iambic line. This characteristic makes it different from the other two poems. It is dominated by combined lines – in each line, SM is identified. What is worthy of note is that there is no line that does not contain SM. This style concretizes Beaver’s extension.
Conclusion
From what the study shows, it is obvious that SM can be applied to different metrical lines. However, there are a few metrical lines that do not use one metrical type of feet but rather a combination of different metrical feet. This is in a general sense. The poems studied exhibit different features of SM realization. But, the realizations are based on the rhythmic pattern of unstressed/stressed as in da daDadaDa (iambus), stressed + unstressed as in Da daDada (trochee); unstressed +unstressed + stressed as in da daDa (anapaest); stressed + unstressed + unstressed Da dada = dactyl; stressed + stressed Da Da (spondee); and, unstressed + unstressed +unstressed da dada (tribrach). Poems 1 and 3 exhibit all these patterns except that of spondee. Poem 2 does not contain iambic and spondee lines. However, SM is identified in all line types in the three poems selected. So, the combined lines are dominant in the poems with SM in each line type.
References
Sadiq, A, Sheriff, H. K. & Tijjani H. K. (2022).An Analysis of Metrical Phonology in the Nigerian National Anthem. Dutse Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences. Vol. 4 No 1. 2022
Clark, J. and Yallop, C. (1990). An Introduction to Phonetics and Phonology. Oxford: Blackwell Publishers.
Gueron, J. (1974). The Meter of Nursery Rhyme: An Application of Halle-Keyser Theory of Meter. In Poetics, Vol. 3, No. 4, pp. 73- 111.
Jehjooh, T. (n.d). “The Realisation of Metrical Phonology in Blake's “The Lamb".Innovation in Language Learning International Conference. Retrieved from online.net/ICT4LL/accepted abstracts_scheda.php?id_abs=3392
Katamba, F. (1989). An Introduction to Phonology. London: Longman.
McCarthy, J.J. and Hayes, B. (2003). “Metrical phonology”. In Oxford International Encyclopedia of Linguistics, Second Edition Vol. 3 Pp: 54-57. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Katamba, F. An Introduction to Phonology. London: Longman, 1989.
Usman, G. (2023). ‘Metrical Analysis of Selected Kids’ Nursery Poems: A Stress Maximum Approach’. Daath Voyage: An International Journal of Interdisciplinary Studies in English. Vol. 8 No. 1 March 2023
Velleman, S. and Shriberg, L. (1999). “Metrical Analysis of the Speech of Children with Suspected Development Apraxia of Speech”. In Journal of Speech, Language and Hearing Research. Vol. 42 pp. 1444-1460. Wagner, P. (2010). “Evaluating Metrical Phonology: A Computational Empirical Approach” Unpublished Thesis. University of Bonn, Germany.
Weber, Jean Jacques (ed.) 1996. The stylistics reader: from Roman Jakobson to the present. London: Arnold.
Appendices
Poem 1: To the Women of New Africa
By: Dennis Osadebay
Proud mothers of the coming age,
‘Tis good to find you now engage
Your minds and time your lives to raise
Above the level of bygone days.
‘Tis good to see you play your part
With spirit and undaunted heart;
It gives Young Afric’s throbbing soul
A glimpse of a bright and glorious goal.
God bless you, Mothers of our Race,
God cause to shine on you His face;
And give you strength and all you crave
To bring forth sons and daughters brave.
Poem 2: The Stars Have Departed
By: Christopher Okigbo
The stars have departed,
The sky in monocle
Surveys the world under
The stars have departed,
And I – where am I?
Stretch, stretch, O antennae,
To clutch at this hour,
Fulfilling each moment in a broken monody.
Poem 3: The Mesh
By: Kwesi Brew
We have come to crossroads
And I must either leave or come with you
I lingered over the choice
But in the darkness of my doubts
You lifted over choice
You lifted a lamp of love
And I saw in your face
The road that I should.
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