Cite this article as: Okafor, T. M., & Okoro, I. (2026). A comparative study of the use of grammatical devices in selected Nigerian legal and sports documents. Sokoto Journal of Linguistics and Communication Studies (SOJOLICS), 2(2), 305-314. https://doi.org/10.36349/sojolics.2026.v02i02.028
By
Okafor, Theodore Madu
School of General
Studies, Imo State Polytechnic
&
Okoro, Isabella,
School of General
Studies, Imo State Polytechnic.
Abstract
The ability to read and
understand what is written is critical to the success of any communication
activity. This paper is a study of the use of grammatical devices for
inter-sentence connection in selected Nigerian legal and sports documents with
a view to identifying the devices used in the two registers, determining the
relative frequency with which they are used, examining the variability in usage
and offering explanations for any differences in the use of the grammatical
devices. The study is anchored on Reader-Response/Transactional theory. The
data used were drawn from a selected legal document and a sports document. The
texts were analyzed using four categories of grammatical devices, namely:
discourse reference, substitution, ellipsis and logical connectors. Thestudy
reveals that discourse referring devices of personal pronouns and determiner
types were predominantly used in the texts reviewed. It is quite apparent from
the data that the need to avoid the possibility of being misinterpreted calls
for the use of discourse reference devices by legal draftsmen and news writers.
The study, thereafter, concludes that a considerable degree of knowledge of
grammatical devices is desirable for professionals specifically in legal and
sports fields to present ideas and facts comprehensively.
Keywords: comparative, grammatical, devices, legal, documents.
1. Introduction
The concept of register
in relation to various classifications of the extra linguistic circumstances
which determine linguistic choice has been of great interest to students in
Discourse Analysis, Sociolinguistics and Pragmatics. Aremo (2004) observes that
the choice of a variety of English is not only determined by where the user of
the language comes from or by his level of education and social standing. In
fact, it is also influenced by his conventions for using the language in
particular social situations.
Register is defined by
Aremo (2004) as a variety of language used in a situational context. The
varieties used in handling different kinds of subject matter (e.g. Medicine,
Law) or used in particular activities such as swimming, driving, dancing) are
mainly distinguished by their vocabulary and grammar.
Registers may be
distinguished according to the three-dimensional elements as suggested by
Halliday (1976). These are field of discourse, mode of discourse and tenor of
discourse. The field of discourse distinguishes the nature of the topic around
which the language activity is centred. Mode of discourse centres on the medium
employed which incorporates various combinations of the basic two modes, that
is, spoken and written. Tenor, on the other hand, is concerned with the social
roles of participants, their status, relationship and personalities. It borders
on the degree of formality, familiarity and technicality of linguistic changes.
According to Ojetunde (2014), “Functional tenor is concerned with determining
the social function or the role of an utterance, that is, the purpose for which
the language is used either to direct, describe, command or request”.
Concerns have been
expressed regarding dominance of certain grammatical devices in sports and
legal documents. These devices often affect meaning and interpretation of
texts. It is against this background that this paper examines the use of
grammatical devices in legal and sports articles. As would be expected, the
mode of discourse of the two registers is written, while the tenor is formal.
The emphasis here is on the comparative study of the use of grammatical devices
in legal documents and sports reports. The objectives of this study include: to
identify the grammatical devices commonly used in legal and sports documents,
to examine the variability that may likely feature in the use of grammatical
connective devices in legalese and journalese registers and how they contribute
to meaning in the registers under study and offer explanations for any
differences in the use of the devices.
It is important to note
that the need to co-join like -items and make reference to identical items for
clear expressions is highly essential in language use because the well-formed
sentence which is well connected with the neigbouring sentences still has to
fit in with the particular social situation in which it is being used. The
extent to which this assertion is valid can only be revealed by a detailed
examination of selected Nigerian legal documents and sports report
2. Literature Review
2.1 Language of
Journalism
Exploring the meaning of
sports journalism requires a reasonable understanding of the concept of
journalism and the nature of the language of the media-print and electronic.
Print, here refers to the newspapers/magazines, while electronic refers to
radio and television.
Journalism, according to
Ike (2009), is the production of news and views, the chronicling of timely
events that are of interest to man. According to him, the origin of journalism
can be traced back to the ancient Rome and the publication of “Acta Diarha”
from 59BC, which daily recorded important social and political affairs in the
society. In the words of Rodrigo (2020),’the term journalism’ is a set of
activities through which news is collected, organized, printed and circulated.
The general objectives
of journalism are to inform, to educate and to entertain. Through the print and
electronic media, people generally are kept abreast of the happenings around
them or reminded of what happened before which help them solve present problems
and predict future happenings. Through the media, people are generally
introduced to new knowledge and made to fully comprehend what they particularly
know, and through the media, people are entertained through articles, cartoons,
music, drama, sports among others.
Ike further observes
that “as in every profession, journalism is highly influenced by jargons or
specialized vocabulary with which every member of the profession is familiar or
should be familiar”. In journalism, jargon is handled at two levels as in every
other profession today. Thus, journalists now translate jargons into ordinary
English as much as possible. This forms the background of today’s language of
journalism which can be said to be generally synonymous with the language of
the average educated man or woman in the society. It is essentially reportorial
and thrives on essential grammar of the language as well as correct, effective
word usage. This suggests that the journalist obeys the rule of grammar but to
the extent that it makes his copy clear, concise and suitable.
In journalism,
adjectives are chosen with care just as efforts are made to avoid superfluous
details. Articles (the, a, an) are purposely avoided whenever possible.
Superfluous phrases and clauses that add little or nothing to the meaning, but
occupy space are deliberately avoided. For suitability, the journalist employs
words, not in the least for the sake of it, but to match the subject, the mood
and space of the events being described or the needs of the reader. The
language contents of newspapers is always current. As a result of this
currency, readers develop language skills within a real and relevant context.
Due to its immediacy, readers easily relate what they read in the newspaper
with what goes on in the society.
Edward cited in
Awurumibe (1997) defines sports as an activity having history, a tradition,
stressing physical exhaustion through competitions within the limitations of
pre-determined rules and regulations and carried out by individuals who
represent formally organized groups, who are to achieve recognition or a set of
goals by defeating the opponent.Sports are organized,competitive physical
activities that involve skill, physical prowess and often serve as
entertainment (Reed,2025).They are all forms of physical activities that
contribute to physical fitness, mentalwell-being and social interaction.(United
Nations Inter-agency Task force on Sports for Development and Peace, 2026).
Agu (2015) observes that
sports reporting relies more on ability to communicate across to audience. He
summarizes the activities of the sports reporter thus:
Narrating: Describing what is happening, action by action.
Elaborating: Giving background information about team, player’s records, the
ground, the crowd, speculating on motives and thoughts of the players.
Evaluating: giving opinions about play, players, teams, referee decisions.
Summarizing: Giving an overview on play so far.
In fact, sports have
been described as pervasive phenomena which permeate all levels of social
realities and articulate with other institutions such as education, politics,
economics, mass media, religion and so on. It is an institutionalized game that
demands the demonstration of physical powers.
2.2 Legal Register
Tanimowo (1991) examines
the devices used for inter-sentence connection in the English of legal
documents to determine their frequency of usage and why some particular devices
are preferred to others in the drafting of legal documents. His study reveals that
repetition is mostly used of all the devices based on the fact that it enables
the legal draftsman express himself with precision. Thus, the choice of inter
sentence connective devices in legal documents is determined, to a large
extent, by the need for precision and clarity.
Ambi (2014) observes
that judicious use of cohesive devices by lawyers enhance the understanding of
legal documents. Through the knowledge of the devices, the writer would be able
to hang sentences together.
2.3 Grammatical Devices
2.3.1 Discourse
reference:
This is used to indicate
some items that are used to refer to some items in discourse (Ojetunde, 2014).
The meanings of these items are dependent on the meaning of their referents.
Cohesive reference is often signaled by means of personal pronouns (Masculine,
feminine, neuter), demonstratives (this, these, that, those) and comparative
terms: (same, other, better etc.) These signals for retrieval may refer to
entities within the text (endophoric reference); within the context of culture
(homophoric reference) or immediate context of situation (exophoric reference).
Endophoric reference is further categorized into cataphoric and anaphoric
reference. When they refer back to items preceding them, they are said to be
anaphoric, and when they refer to another item that comes after them, they are
said to be cataphoric. In other words, cataphoric reference is forward
pointing, while anaphoric is backward looking. Here is an example of anaphoric
reference:
Many students still
failed the test, they would never come for lecturers and therefore, they keep
repeating the course.
In the above example,
the first ‘they’ is an immediate anaphoric reference. It refers back too many
students,’ while the second ‘they’ is a remote anaphoric reference still
referring to ‘many students.
An example of cataphoric
reference is given below:
‘This’ is the story. The
cashier was sacked for negligence of duty.
In the above example,
‘this’ is a cataphoric reference because it refers forward to the next sentence
for its meaning. The use of these reference items ‘they’ and ‘here’ is what
connects the sentences in the examples above.
2.3.2 Substitution
In substitution, a
lexical item is replaced by another. This device is used to avoid repetition of
a lexical item. This implies that a substitute, replacing any given class of
words must have the same structural function as the item it replaces. Halliday
and Hassan (1976) identify the following categories of substitution.
a). Nominal substitutes:
A: The man looks
depressed.
B: He was the ‘one’
arrested for stealing a bag of rice yesterday.
In the above example,
‘one’ replaces the noun “the man”.
b.) Verbal
substitutes: This occurs when the predicate element in a sentence is replaced
by the auxiliary verb ‘do’ (do, does, did):
A: That man fights a lot
B: His friend ‘does’,
too
Here, ‘does’ replaces
the predicate ‘fights a lot’
c.) Clausal substitute:
A: They will certainly
succeed
B: I hope so
In this example, ‘so’
replaces the entire clause.
2.3.3 Ellipsis
Ellipsis, according to
the British Council (2025), is used when the meaning is obvious without the
missing items. Like substitution, ellipsis helps to avoid unnecessary
repetition of an item. However, while in substitution, the item is replaced by
another item (the-proform), in ellipsis, it is replaced by nothing. In other
words, ellipsis entails zero substitution. It should be noted that in ellipsis,
the meaning of the sentence is quite recoverable from the text. The three types
of ellipsis are: nominal ellipsis, that is, ellipsis within the nominal group;
Verbal ellipsis – ellipsis within the predication; and clausal ellipsis which
involves the omission of other parts of the sentence structure.
Nominal ellipsis
A: Bonko bought two
pairs of shoes.
B: I bought one ………
(‘pair of shoes’ ellipted)
Verbal ellipsis
A: The man tried
B: Did he really
………? (‘try’ ellipted)
Clausal ellipsis
A: She knows why I am
here
B: Certainly, she knows
……. (‘Why I am here’ ellipted)
Logical connectors:
These are conjunctions and cojuncts. Aremo (2004) defines conjunctions as the
connection of sentences into units of meaning in discourse by using some items
referred to as conjunctions (e.g. ‘and’, ‘but’) or conjuncts (e.g. however, yet)
to make explicit the meaning relationship between the sentences. Conjunctions
are basically grammatical items that join words, phrases and sentences, while
conjuncts are a class of adverbials which serve connective purposes: moreover,
as a result, yet, rather, alternatively on the contrary etc.
It is important to
note that most of the meaning relationship expressed by the conjuncts are also
expressed by one or other of the co-ordinating conjunctions ‘and’, ‘or’, “but”.
The most versatile of the conjunctions in this regard is “and” which can
express enumeration, re-enforcement, summation, result etc. depending on the
context of use.
3. Theoretical Framework
This research effort is
anchored on the Reader-Response/Transactional Theory propounded by Tracey and
Morrow (2006). The theory posits that a text does not exist until it is read
and experienced by the reader. According to them, it is the relationship between
the reader and the text that gives new perspectives to the literary work. It
views a literary work as a piece of performing art and every reader creates
their own ‘performance’ by reading it. This theory emerged as a reaction
against ‘New Criticism’ which focused only on the text’s structure and
disregarded the reader’s reaction to the text. The theory gained prominence in
the 1960s and focuses on the reader’s reaction to a particular text, perhaps
more than the text itself.
The relevance of this
theory to the present study lies in the fact that for a text to be meaningful
to its readers, writers should ensure that such texts are made more readable by
using appropriate grammatical devices. This implies that only texts that are
well structured, using appropriate grammatical devices can elicit the expected
resibeponses from the reader.
4. Data and Methodology
This study is
descriptive research. As a descriptive study, it attempts to describe the
essential elements and characteristics of the phenomenon under study. The data
used for this study were drawn from one legal document (sale of land agreement)
and ‘The Nation’. The data were restricted to those drawn from these texts to
allow for detailed examination of grammatical devices used in the texts. The
texts were then analyzed for instances of any of the grammatical devices for
inter-sentence connection in the registers examined.
Specifically, each text
was analyzed following Halliday and Hassan’s and Aremo’s treatment of
grammatical devices for inter-sentence connection. The occurrences of the
different types of these devices were totaled up and their relative frequencies
discussed. The differences in the use of these cohesive devices were also
examined and explained.
The data analyzed
in this study are secondary data drawn from one sports tabloid and one legal
document. The two texts were taken as representing other documents in legalese
and sports registers. The texts were then analyzed for instances of grammatical
devices and how they (these devices) contribute to meaning.
An extract from a legal
document: Irrevocable power of Attorney
A.) This irrevocable
power of Attorney is donated this day of ……….by we messers……...(here in after
called ‘donors’ which expression shall where the context so admits include our
heirs, assigns, executors/administrators and or personal representatives) of
the one part. TO Rev. E.E Ojo of OLU, Oru L.G.A of Imo State (here in after
called the ‘Donee’ which expression shall where the context so admits include
his heirs, assigns, executors/administrators and or personal representatives)
of the other parts.
B.) Now be it known to
all men by these presents that we messers……………of ……………do hereby constitute,
nominate and appoint ……….as our true and lawful attorney over our said land for
ourselves, heirs, assigns, executors/administrators and personal
representatives with power of substitution to do and execute any or all of the
following acts.
1. To take full control
and effective possession of our said land and to manage and superintend the
management of same in the way and manner we would in person do.
2. To finance, erect or
cause to be financed or erected on the land building(s) with the approval or
authority of the appropriate Government Department, such building(s) being
residential, commercial or otherwise as may be authorized by such competent
Government Authority.
Table 1: Grammatical
Devices in the Legal Document
|
Document |
Discourse Reference |
Logical Connectors |
Ellipsis |
Substitution |
Total number of occurrences |
|
Text A |
- |
8 (66.6%) |
- |
4 (33.3%) |
12 (42.8) |
|
Text B |
- |
12 (75%) |
- |
4 (25%) |
16 (57.1%) |
|
|
- |
20 (71.4%) |
|
8 (28.5%) |
28 |
From the above table,
out of 28 instances of grammatical devices recorded in the legal document
examined, logical connectors were mostly used, that is, (71.4%) followed by
substitution (28.5%). No instances of discourse reference and substitution were
recorded in the text. It is obvious from the analysis that logical connectors
and substitution were the devices that were highly favoured. The devices gave
room for precision and clarity in the legal documents. Logical connectors were
also used to make explicit the connection between the sentences in the texts as
a whole.
Extracts from ‘Sporting
Sun’
Betis was trailing 4 – 0
in the 67thminute when on-loan Arsenal forward, Joel Campbell
reduced the deficit before two quick-fire goals from Antonio and Tello made it
4 – 3 with six minutes of normal time remaining (sporting sun, Wednesday,
October 18, 2017).
Becker was said to owe a
substantial sum during his case at the Bankruptcy and companies court hearing
in London, which lasted just 30 minutes. The 49 –year-old was not present for
the hearing with a judge describing him as someone who had tried to bury his
‘head in the sand’. The tennis ace’s lawyers had urged the court to adjourn the
case for 28 days to enable him raise a six-million-euro mortgage on a property
in Spain.
Table 2: Grammatical
devices in the sports document
|
Document |
Discourse Reference |
Logical Connectors |
Ellipsis |
Substitution |
Total number of occurrences |
|
Text A |
1 (20%) |
2 (40%) |
- |
2 (40%) |
5 (33.3) |
|
Text B |
5 (50%) |
3 (30%) |
- |
2 (40%) |
10 (66.6%) |
|
|
6 (40%) |
5 (33.3%) |
- |
4 (26.7%) |
15 |
The analysis above
indicates that discourse reference, logical connectors and substitution were
the most frequently used in sports reporting. The need to emphasize a point,
achieve grammatical cohesion informs the ample use of these devices.
5. Analysis and
Discussion
The analyses of the
texts used in this study have revealed that grammatical devices are necessary
characteristic features of both legalese and journalese registers. The study
found out that out of four classes of syntactic devices, examined, discourse reference,
logical connectors and substitution were the most predominantly used. It is
quite obvious from this analysis that the need to avoid the possibility of
being misinterpreted calls for the use of discourse reference devices by legal
draftsmen and news writers. The reason for the more use of logical connectors
(71.4%) in the legal document than in the sports documents (33.5%) could be due
to the fact that legal documents are characterized by complex expressions that
need to be logically and coherently presented. Thus, the use of conjunctions
and conjuncts is the peculiar style of the legalese register.
6. Conclusion:
From the study, it is
clear that legal draftsmen and sports writers aim at precision and clarity in
writing their texts, hence the ample use of discourse strategies to achieve
precision and clarity of expression. The paper equally reveals different linguistic
features peculiar to the two registers. This calls for the need for
professionals to have a considerable degree of knowledge of the devices for
inter-sentence connection in order to present ideas coherently and
comprehensively in their various fields. If services delivery, especially in
the legal and sports fields are to be greatly improved, effective language use
is highly necessary, and this can only be made possible by clever use of
inter-sentential connectors.
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