The Metaphor of Colour Terms in Kyanga and C'lela Languages

Article Citation: Shehu Sidi Ibrahim & Bello Danladi Dogondaji (2023). The Metaphor of Colour Terms in Kyanga and C'lela Languages. DEGEL: The Journal of the Faculty of Arts and Islamic Studies, Vol. 20, No. 1 & 2. ISSN 0794-9316

THE METAPHOR OF COLOUR TERMS IN KYANGA AND C'LELA LANGUAGES

By

Shehu Sidi Ibrahim and Bello Danladi Dogondaji

Abstract

Colour terms are not only objects of beauty but means of expressing thoughts, emotions and feelings in a unique sense. Several studies of colour terms on various facet of communication have given colours special place in linguistics. Scholars like Deing (1978), Wescot (1983), Kikuchi &Lichtenberk (1983), Kos – Dienes (1983) and Lustina (2012) have focused on metaphorical expression of colour terms in English, Swadish and Kinga. This paperexamines the metaphorical usage of colour terms in Kyanga and Cʹ lela languages, commonly spoken in Kebbi and Sokoto state of North western Nigeria.Both languages belong to the Niger-Congo language family.A cross sectional survey design of Gay’s (1981) was employed and the data were obtained from a total of 320 respondents across speakers of Kyanga and C ;lela in Kasati, Tungar Magajiya, Tungar Baje, Tungar Yamma, Kwakkwaba, Kyangakwai, some parts of Argungu and Zuru emirate in Kebbi state respectively. Interview and questionnaire were used as research instruments and the result reveals that colour terms are used in metaphorical expression in both languages. The commonest colour terms that are used in metaphoric expressions in the languages are ‘white’, ‘black’ and ‘red’. In addition, the paper discovers that most of the youths in Cʹ lela societycould not use colour terms in metaphorical expressions not to talk of Kyanga which has limited number of speakers.Of course, this poses serious threat to the survival of the languages.

Introduction

Language is an indispensable tool for communicating thoughts and experiences on one hand and deep emotions and powerful feelings on the other. It goes beyond expressing the literal meaning of words themselves to conveying special sense. It is a powerful tool of creating vivid imagery through words. Human beings are bestowed with exceptional skills of using language beyond ordinary sense to conveying special meaning. This is done through figurative expressions. Metaphor, as one of the figures of speech, is a common trend in the colour terms scheme of many West African languages. It provides special, but unique sense of a phenomenon which literal meaning cannot. Of course, in this case, metaphoric expression conveys meaning that is different from the one given by ordinary words.Therefore, metaphorrepresents a more creative use of language to convey meaning and mood.

Studies on Metaphoric Expressions of Colour Terms

Lakoff and Johnson (1980) opine that systematic analysis of language use could indicate the presence of an underlying metaphoric conceptual process which can explain whole collections of expressions. Of course, such expressions require abstract reasoning, grounded in bodily concrete experience. Deignan (1999) while identifying collocations as helpful instrument to analyzing metaphorical meaning describes metaphor as the mapping of one domain onto another. Metaphorical usage of colour terms was studied by Derrig (1978), Wescot (1983) and Kikuchi & lichtenberk (1983) and confirm that ‘black’ was associated with malevolence evil and ‘white with innocent goodness.

In another development, Kos – Dienes (1983), in his study of Swadish and English figurative use of colour terms, reveals that there was strong reciprocity between the symbolic use of colour and the concept it referred to as most respondents believed that ‘black’ could symbolize death, and mention of death made people think of black. But the relationship between ‘red’ and ‘love’ did not show this strong reciprocity.

However, Lustina (2012) in her study on colour terms in Kinga - the Bantu languages spoken in the southern highland of Tanzania in Makete district of Njombe regionexamines the various ways Kinga speakers use colour terms metaphorically in the day to day discourse in concrete situations. The result shows that the respondents from 50yrs and above without any formal education could only mentioned three colour terms as mbalasu (white), nitul (black) and suvesu / ndung ‘u (red). To them, ‘nitu’ is a term for black, blue, green and grey while ‘suvesu’ include red, yellow, purple, pink, brown and orange. In contrast, those respondents with formal education were able to ‘husurungi’ for brown, ‘pinki’ for pink, ‘orenji’ for orange and ‘kijifu’ for grey in addition to the terms for white, black and red.

Hence, the study concludes that white, black and red are the most frequent metaphorical colour terms in Kinga. They are used to imply good behaviour, beauty, good weather, good health on one hand and bad behaviour, ugly, bad weather, scarcity, witch craft, suffering, bad health, empty/nothing, danger and death on the other.

Danladi (1998, 2010) also supports Lustina’s findings on the use of metaphor in Kinga and added that metaphor, metonymy and idiomatic expression could be found in the colour schemes of most West African languages.Just like Lustina, Danladi (2012) also discovers that metaphoricexpressions are common with the elderly category of respondents.

Theoretical Framework

The Cognitive semantics theory deals with mental representation of the concept generated in the individual cognitive power as people conceive it. It argues that lexical meaning is conceptual and that the meaning of a lexeme is not necessarily reference to the entity or relation in some real or possible world that it refers to, but corresponds with a concept held in the mind based on personal understanding or experiences with that entity or relation. It stresses that semantics is not objective and semantic knowledge is not isolatable from encyclopaedic knowledge. Hence, semantics is amenable to the same mental processes as encyclopaedic knowledge (Talmy, 2003).

It rejects the formal traditions modularization of linguistics into phonology, syntax, pragmatics, etc. and divides semantics (meaning) into meaning-construction and knowledge representation which traditionally covers studies of pragmatics and semantics. Looking at the theory from that perspective, Foder (1983) explains that language is part of a more general human cognitive ability which can only describe the world as people conceive it. 

Similarly, the theory claims that meaning is a matter of construal and conventionalization since it is not fixed. Lakoff and Johnson (1980), however, argue that both the construal processes of linguistic construal and psychological processes involved in the processing of encyclopaedic knowledge and in perception are not different. Along these lines, cognitive semantics argues that compositionality can only be intelligible if pragmatic elements like context and intention are taken into consideration. The fundamental principles of the theory as given by Talmy (2000), Johnson-Laird & Oafley, K. (1989), Fillmore (1982) and Fauconier (1994, 1997) are:

§  Conceptual structure is embodied and consists of conceptual representation including image schema (Johnson’s Image Schema theory, 1989).

§  Semantic structure is conceptual structure that consists of meaning units like lexical concepts (Talmy’s Theory of Conceptual Structure, 2003).

§  Meaning representation is encyclopedic as exemplified by Frame Semantics of Fillmore (1982).

§  Meaning construction is conceptualization as exemplified by the Mental Space theory of Faucconier (1994).

This theory is suitable for this study in the sense that meaning of a colour is conceptualized in the mind of individual person. Colour meaning in this case is a matter of construal and

Methodology

This paper employs a cross sectional survey design of Gay’s (1981) which allows the use of multiple research instruments in complementary. With this, the data were obtained fromseventy (70) respondents; sixty (60) filled questionnaire while ten (10) responded to interview questions. These respondents were drawn from Kasati, Tungan Bage, Tungan Yamma, Tungan Maigirbi in Bagudo LGA and Kyangakwai and Kwakkwaba in Dandi LGA and some parts of Argungu Emirate of Kebbi states respectively. Similarly, out of theone hundred and sixty (160) respondents from Cˈ lela, only one hundred and forty one (141) were considered and ten (10) have responded to the interview questions. The respondents in Cˈ lela were selected from Senchi, Dabai, Zuru, Manga, Ushe and Tadurga.

However, the researcher embarked on ten days familiarization visit to the selected Kyanga and Cˈ lela communities. He briefed the village heads and their council members of the purpose of his visit and solicited for their cooperation. During the visits, three (3) research assistants were selected from Kyanga and six (6) from Cˈlela, through purposive sampling. The researcher trained the research assistants on the instruments to be used in data gathering, informed them adequately on the objective of the study and the need for them to be friendlyand accommodative with the research subjects. They also, came up with a workable plan/schedule that guided their visit to each community for data collection.

The research assistants, village heads and some volunteers from the speakers of the languages identified the first line of the sample population where the questionnaire and interview were administered to them. Similar process was used to discover all the respondents for the questionnaire. Each chosen respondent completed the questionnaire and returned it accordingly.

The researcher,through the assistance of the village heads and the research assistants identified ten (10) subjects from each language for the interview. The selected subjects were visited and decided on the right time for the interview. The researcher and the research assistants conducted the interview to the twenty (20) samples from both languages and recorded their responses throughthe use of a digital recorder and handset after seeking the consent of the interviewee. The recorded interviews weretranscribed, translated, sorted, described, analyzedand discussed under the guide of competent speaker of Kyanga and Cˈlela.

Metaphoric Colour Terms in Kyanga and C ‘lela

Although, several figurative expressions of colour terms could be observed across languages, this paper limits its scope to colour terms that are used in metaphorical expressions of Kyanga and C ‘lela languages. The study discovers that metaphor is common in colour expressions in the languages. Although, the scheme is not as rich in the languages as it is in Hausa.

Metaphor of Colour Terms in Kyanga

According to Eberhard, Simmons & Fennig, 2022, Kyanga is an endangered indigenous language of Nigeria and Benin. It belongs to the Niger-Congo language family. The language is called differently as Kyenga, Tyenga, Tienga and Changa. The main Kyanga speaking villages in Nigeria are Kasati, Tondi, Tunga Bage, Sarafu and Samba in Bagudo and Dandi Local Government Areas of Kebbi State and the language shares some lexical similarities with Shanga, Zarma and Busa (Ross, 2010). Ross (2010) further claims that among the villages in Bagudo and Dandi LGAs of Kebbi state only ‘Kasati’,’ Kyangakwai’ and ‘Kwakkwaba’ speak the purest version of the language.

With regard to metaphorical usage of colour terms in the language, it could be observed that the language has few colours that are used metaphorically. Seventy six percent of the respondents from both questionnaire and interview could not provide examples of metaphorical use of colour terms in the language. This claim is further justified in the table below:

Table 1: Metaphoric colour terms in Kyanga

Language	Metaphoric Expression	Colour term in the expression	Meaning
Kyanga	1. múnàhwáhíw(è) 2. shέf(ú) 3. shέid(é) 4. héemúhèc(í)   5. íjékén(à)	White the suffix‘-fú’ in the expression also refers to white. .’shέi’ refers to ‘green’ in Kyanga. ‘cí(i)’ which is suffix in the expression and is equivalent to English ‘black’ in Kyanga. Black	This expression implies ‘happiness’ in metaphoric sense. . This expression is metaphoric and it implies ‘a happiest person’. This expression implies enjoyment or affluence in metaphoric sense. . This expression refers to ‘sadness’ in metaphorical sense.   This expression implies ‘black magic’ in metaphoric sense.

It could be observed from the above table that Kyanga uses ‘white’, ‘green’ and ‘black’ in metaphorical expressions. It is clear that that ‘múnàhwáhíwè’, ‘shέfú’, ‘shέidé’, ‘héemúhècí(i)’ and ‘íjékénà’ are all terms that has sense of colours in Kyanga but in this context, they carry special meanings that go beyond literal one. As could be seen from the above table, they are associated with happiness, affluence/enjoyment, sadness and black magic respectively. Note that production of the final vowels (enclosed in bracket) in the above metaphoric expressions in Kyanga is a matter of choice.

It is pertinent to state that although, it was very difficult for somerespondents to produce instances of metaphorical usages of colour termsin the language, yet about 76% of themattempted providing such examples with lots of distortions or inappropriateness. However, this was attributed to the serious declineof the speakers and by extension the leveling of the language as endangered..

Metaphor of Colour Terms in C ‘lela

According to Eberhard, Simons and Fennig (2022), C’Lela is a stable language of Nigeria, spoken by Lelna people of Kebbi state, Nigeria. The language belongs to Niger-Congo language family. However, Immel (1934) and Greenberg (1955) have earlier observed that the speakers of the language have a common relationship with those located along the Benue – Congo pyla, which include the Kambari, Jukuns, Ibibio, Tivs and all the languages from Bantu group.

The language is specifically spoken in Ribah, Kanga, Isgogo, Sanchi Chonoko, Garmache, Machika, Ushe, Manga and Zuru town in Kebbi state, Nigeria. However, Doro (2001) and Dettweiler (2015) observe that despite the influence of Hausa on many dialects of C’lela, Dabai dialect, which is spoken in the Northern part of Zuru Emirate, still remains in its purest version.

Just like Kyanga,Cʹ lela also has significant number of colour terms which are use as object of expressing beauty, deep thought, powerful feelings, danger, purity, abundance, endurance, contentment, etc. This study is on metaphoric expressionsof colour terms in Kyanga andCʹ lela. The data obtained from the respondents on metaphoric colour terms in Cʹ lela are presented in table 2.

Table 2: Metaphoric colour terms in Cʹ lela

Language	Metaphoric Expression	Colour term in the expression	Special meaning
C’lela	1. púusúúcdèbé 2. débád rímdínì   3. déb crímíinì   4. úgyázó/v ‘ròn 5. gyózún ísà	Púusú is derived from Púsú (white colour)’ rímdínì is derived from ‘rim’ (intense black or dark) crímíinì is derived from írímì or rím (black) úgyázóis derived gyázó and is equivalent of English ‘red’ gyázúnis also derived fromgyázó which refers to red colour	This implies ‘great happiness’ in metaphoric expression. This implies wickedness or wicked person.   This refers to a provoking heart or person.   In metaphorical sense the expression refers to an unpopular person. In this sense, the phrase refers to brave or dauntless person.

It could be seen from the above that the three colour terms for red, black and white are commonly used in figurative expressions in Cʹ lela. They give special meaning which is different from the ordinary one they convey. Púusú(white) in Cʹ lela could be used to express great happiness as in ‘púusúú cdèbé’(great happiness), red which is gyózò in Cʹ lela could be used to express braveness and dauntless person, as well as symbolizes unpopular person. The term for black ‘írímì’ or ‘rím’ could be used to express or refer to ‘a hot tempered person or a provoking heart.

Conclusion

The data presented above account for the metaphorical usage of colour terms in Kyanga and Cʹlela. It is very clear that white, black, and red are the common colours use in conveying such special meanings as earlier reported by Deing (1978), Wescot (1983) and Kikuchi & lichtenberk (1983) in their various studies on metaphor of colour terms in English and Swadish.

Similarly, the paper confirms Kos – Dienes (1983) and Lustina (2012) position on metaphorical use of colour terms in English and Kinga respectively as the latershows that the respondents from 50yrs and above were without any formal education and could only mentioned three colour terms asmbalasu (white), nitul (black) and suvesu / ndung ‘u (red) as metaphorical colour terms in Kinga. While the former emphasizes on strong reciprocity between the symbolic use of colour and the concept it referred to ‘black’ symbolizes‘death’ and impliedly mention of death could made people think of black but that was not the situation with the relationship between ‘red’ and ‘love’.

In conclusion, the paper observes that there is significant decline of colour terms among the youth of both Kyanga and Cʹlela society as most responses were from respondents within 40yrs and above category. Since understanding of meaning of metaphoric colour terms relies heavily on construal and conventionalized meaning generated from encyclopedic knowledge, one must pay attention to how the culture bound them together.

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