Article Citation: Owoyemi Samuwilu Alade (2024). Managing Religious and Ethnic Pluralism since the 7th Century in the Muslim World: Lessons for Contemporary Nigeria. DEGEL: The Journal of the Faculty of Arts and Islamic Studies, Vol. 21, No. 1. ISSN 0794-9316
MANAGING
RELIGIOUS AND ETHNIC PLURALISM SINCE THE 7TH CENTURY IN THE MUSLIM WORLD:
LESSONS FOR CONTEMPORARY NIGERIA
By
Owoyemi
Samuwilu Alade
Abstract
It is
indisputable that the modern world is characterized by pluralism, which is
reflected in the diverse cultural, ethnic, and religious backgrounds of its
inhabitants. Since the 7th century, the Muslim world has been pluralistic,
encompassing peoples of various languages, colors, cultures, ethnicities, and
religions. A critical examination of the lifetimes of Prophet Muhammad (S.A.W),
the rightly guided caliphs (R.A), and their faithful successors (R.A) reveals
how religious and ethnic pluralism were effectively managed for the development
of the Muslim community. However, despite Nigeria's abundant human and natural
resources, religious and ethnic diversity continues to pose challenges to the
country's development. The purpose of this paper is to contextualize religious
and ethnic pluralism from the perspective of Islam. Using historical and
qualitative research methods, the study examines how religious and ethnic
pluralism has been managed in the Muslim world and draws lessons for
contemporary Nigeria. The findings of the study reveal that religious and
ethnic pluralism are integral aspects of human existence. Islam recognizes and
accommodates religious and ethnic pluralism, teaching Muslims to manage
diversity by fostering religious freedom, tolerance, love, and peaceful
co-existence with people of different cultures and faiths, as outlined in
Islamic scripture. The study recommends, among other things, that Nigeria
strengthen its religious institutions and legal framework to promote interfaith
dialogue and enable adherents of various faiths and ethnic groups to practice
their religious doctrines, which emphasize love, tolerance, good
neighborliness, and peace, values essential for the country's development.
Key words: religious pluralism;
ethnicity; Muslim world; interfaith dialogue; Nigeria
Introduction
The study
explores religious and ethnic pluralism from historical, theological, and
sociological perspectives. Pluralism in the world encompasses diverse elements
such as religion, ethnicity, culture, language, and politics, and this study
specifically focuses on the intersection of religious and ethnic pluralism.
The Muslim
world, particularly during the lifetime of Prophet Muhammad (S.A.W) and his
companions, has effectively managed religious and ethnic pluralism. For
example, the Prophet’s interactions with Jews, Christians, and pagans, as well
as his establishment of the Constitution of Madinah, are significant historical
examples of managing pluralism. His covenants with various Christian
communities further highlight his role as a promoter of religious diversity.
This historical legacy is essential in understanding how religious and ethnic
pluralism can be managed effectively.
In contrast,
modern nation-states, particularly in regions like Nigeria, reflect the
pluralization of society, with a multitude of ethnic groups and religions
coexisting. For example, Nigeria is home to between 250 to 400 ethnic groups,
with major ones including Hausa, Yoruba, Igbo, and Fulani. Despite this
diversity, religious and ethnic pluralism in the modern world is not always
effectively managed. Tensions between religious groups, particularly between
Christianity and Islam, are prevalent in various regions.
One clear
manifestation of this strain is the rise of Islamophobia, particularly in the
United States, where a Pew Research Center survey indicates that a significant
percentage of Republicans exhibit prejudice towards Muslims. Similarly, the
persecution of Christians, especially in parts of the Middle East, is another
alarming example, with ISIS (Daesh) being responsible for the death and
enslavement of many Christians in Syria and Iraq. These issues point to the
ongoing challenges in managing religious and ethnic pluralism in the modern
world.
Religious and
ethnic pluralism, in theory, should be a blessing to Nigeria, given its status
as the most populous Black country in the world and its diverse cultural,
religious, and ethnic makeup. However, the reality has been less than ideal.
The multi-religious nature of Nigerian society is often marked by violence,
intolerance, provocative evangelization, killings, and other harmful incidents.
These occurrences highlight the challenges Nigeria faces in managing its
pluralistic society.
Historically,
ethno-religious crises have led to the loss of lives and properties, creating
tensions that hinder peaceful coexistence and national development. One key
area of concern is the practice of Da’wah (proselytization) by Muslims and
crusades/evangelization by Christians. While these religious activities may be
intended to spread faith, they have sometimes exacerbated hostilities, creating
further division between the various faiths and ethnic groups.
This backdrop
sets the stage for a critical examination of religious and ethnic pluralism
from an Islamic perspective. The paper explores how religious and ethnic
diversity were managed in the early Muslim world, particularly under the
leadership of Prophet Muhammad (S.A.W) and his companions, whose efforts in
establishing peaceful coexistence among diverse groups can provide valuable
lessons for Nigeria. By drawing on historical examples, this study aims to
offer insights into how Nigeria can better manage its own pluralistic society
and move toward greater unity, tolerance, and development.
Definition
of Religious Pluralism and Ethnicity
Scholars have
made various attempts to define and conceptualize religious pluralism and
ethnicity, recognizing their relevance in different social, cultural, and
historical contexts. Eboh (2019) defines religious pluralism as a situation in
which different religious groups coexist within a given institutional
framework. He emphasizes that these groups often have distinct doctrines of
salvation and worldviews, which shape their values, lifestyles, and ultimate
goals. Religious pluralism is further described as the peaceful coexistence of
people from different religious backgrounds who interact at all levels without
fear, prejudice, or persecution. Synonyms for religious pluralism include terms
like “religious diversity,” “religious inclusivism,” “religious tolerance,” and
“religious ecumenism” (Ete, 2019).
Within the
context of Nigeria, religious pluralism can be defined as the coexistence of
adherents from various religious traditions, including Christianity, Islam,
Traditional Religion, and others. This coexistence is supported by the Nigerian
constitution, which guarantees the right to practice different faiths.
Religious pluralism in Nigeria, therefore, reflects the nation's commitment to
fostering a multi-religious society.
Ethnicity, on
the other hand, refers to the identification of individuals with a specific
cultural tradition or nation (Hornby, 2020). Umezinwa (2012) defines an ethnic
group as one that claims a common ancestry, whether or not its members are
large or small in number. What unites members of an ethnic group is a shared
sense of origin, often leading to solidarity within the group. This solidarity
is reinforced by cultural practices, language, traditions, and shared values.
Dokua (2018)
offers a broader understanding of ethnicity, defining it as a way to
distinguish groups of people who are perceived as distinct based on their
locational origins and cultural characteristics. The concept of ethnicity often
overlaps with terms like “tribalism,” “discrimination,” “racism,” and
“prejudice,” as seen in various countries, including the United States. In the
Nigerian context, ethnicity refers to groups of people living in the country's
six geopolitical zones, North-East, North-West, North-Central, South-South,
South-East, and South-West, who are defined by common origins, language,
culture, and religion.
Thus, religious
pluralism and ethnicity in Nigeria are significant social factors that shape
the country’s identity. While these elements could serve as a source of unity,
they have sometimes been sources of conflict, particularly when not properly
managed.
Religious
and Ethnic Pluralism from the Perspective of Islam
Religion has
historically manifested itself in a variety of forms across different
ethnicities, races, languages, devotional practices, myths, and rituals,
spanning from the early societies of cave dwellers to the civilizations of
ancient China, India, Iran, Egypt, and Babylon (Mahmoud, 2019). Islam, as a
major monotheistic faith, recognizes the inherent existence of religious and
ethnic pluralism, which has existed as long as human history. A close
examination of the Glorious Qur'an and the authentic Hadiths (sayings of the
Prophet Muhammad, S.A.W) reveals that religious and ethnic diversity are part
of a divine design, as decreed by Allah (SWT), the Creator of the universe and
its inhabitants. In this context, Islam acknowledges religious diversity,
inclusivism, and tolerance in societies composed of individuals from various
ethnic, linguistic, and cultural backgrounds.
The Qur'an
specifically addresses people from different religious communities, such as
Muslims, Jews, Christians, and Sabians. Allah (SWT) states:
“Surely,
those who believe (i.e., the Muslims), and those who are Jews, the Christians,
and the Sabians, whoever accepts faith in God and the Last Day and performs
good deeds, they shall have their reward with their Lord; no fear shall come
upon them, nor will they grieve” (Qur'an, 2:62).
In another
verse, the Qur'an also recognizes the Magians (Zoroastrians) and
idol-worshippers alongside Muslims, Jews, Sabians, and Christians, stating:
“Surely,
those who have accepted faith (i.e., the Muslims), those who are Jews, the
Sabians, the Christians, the Magians, and those who have associated other
deities with God, God will judge them among them on the Day of Resurrection.
God is Witness over all things” (Qur'an, 22:17).
Mahmoud (2019)
explains that while the Sabians may not have had a specific scripture, unlike
Jews, Christians, and Muslims, they were believed to have revered the stars and
acknowledged a divine Creator. He posits that the Sabian faith could
spiritually prefigure non-prophetic wisdom religions such as Hinduism,
Buddhism, and the religions of China and Japan.
Additionally,
the term Ahl-al-Kitāb (People of the Revealed Books) is
specifically used to refer to Jews and Christians, whose Prophets, Prophet Mūsā
(Moses) and Prophet ‘Isā (Jesus Christ), were granted the holy scriptures of
the Torah and the Gospel (Injil), respectively. Muslims, while believing in the
Qur'an revealed to Prophet Muhammad (S.A.W), are also instructed to believe in
the divine messages sent to previous prophets (A.S) without any form of
discrimination or distinction. This reinforces the concept of inter-religious
respect and acceptance in Islam, further promoting a pluralistic understanding
of faith and belief.
In essence, the
Islamic perspective on religious and ethnic pluralism calls for peaceful
coexistence, tolerance, and respect among different religious communities,
acknowledging that diversity in faith and ethnicity is part of the divine plan.
This framework is vital for fostering mutual understanding and harmony in a
diverse world. This instruction is contained in the Qur’an where Allah
(SWT) commands thus:
Say: “We
believe in God, and in what has been revealed to us and what was revealed to
Abraham, Ismail, Isaac, Jacob and the tribes and in (the books) given to Moses,
Jesus and the prophets from their Lord. We make no distinction between one
another among them, and to God do we submit (in Islam) (Q3:84).
Central to
religious pluralism in Islam is the religious freedom and inclusiveness that is
guaranteed to the adherents of different faiths. The Glorious Qur’an allows
people of other faiths such as idol-worshippers or pagans to practise their
faith (i.e. polytheism) (Q109) and that no one should compel or coerce people
to accept Islam (Q2:256). Having different faiths in the world is the wish of
Allah (SWT) because He had the power to make the whole mankind follow or belong
to one religion. This religious diversity cum religious freedom is captured in
the Qur’an where it says:
And if your
Lord had pleased, surely all of those who are in the earth would have believed,
all of them, then will you then force men till they become believers? And it is
not for a soul to believe except by Allah’s permission, (Q10-99-100).
Prophet
Muhammad (S.A.W) exemplified the proper approach to managing ethnic diversity
through his actions and teachings. A notable instance was his appointment of
Bilal ibn Abi Rabah, a Black man of Ethiopian origin, as the first Mu'adhdhin (caller
to prayer) in Islam, due to his melodious voice—an act that went against the
prevailing Arab ethnic pride of the time. Similarly, during the Battle of al-Khandaq (the
Trench), the Prophet accepted and implemented a strategic suggestion from
Salman al-Farisi, a Persian companion, demonstrating that wisdom and
contribution, not ethnic background, were what truly mattered in Islam.
Islam
acknowledges and affirms the existence of diverse ethnicities, tribes,
languages, and skin colours as signs of Allah’s creative power and not as bases
for discrimination. This diversity is explicitly recognised in the Glorious
Qur'an, where Allah (SWT) declares:
“And among
His signs is the creation of the heavens and the earth, and the diversity of
your tongues and colours. Indeed, in that are signs for those who know” (Qur'an, 30:22).
In another
verse, Allah makes it clear that the purpose of ethnic diversity is mutual
recognition, not rivalry or claims of superiority. The true basis of honour in
the sight of Allah is taqwa (piety), not tribal affiliation:
“O mankind!
Indeed, We created you from a male and a female and made you into nations and
tribes so that you may know one another. Verily, the most honoured of you in
the sight of Allah is the most righteous of you. Allah is All-Knowing,
All-Aware” (Qur'an,
49:13).
Prophet
Muhammad (S.A.W) strongly condemned tribalism and ethnic partisanship. In a
Hadith recorded by Tirmidhi and Abu Daud and cited by Lemu (1992: 62–63), he
stated:
“He is not
one of us who calls for tribalism; he is not one of us who fights for
tribalism; and he is not one of us who dies for tribalism.”
Despite Islam's
inclusive teachings, ethnic stereotyping and hierarchies occasionally surfaced
in the early Muslim community. The fact that Islam was first revealed in an
Arab context led some Arab Muslims to develop a sense of ethnic superiority,
making it difficult for them to fully accept non-Arab converts as equals.
Prophet Muhammad (S.A.W), however, consistently worked to dispel such attitudes.
In his Khutbat
al-Wada’ (Farewell Sermon), the Prophet addressed this issue directly,
emphasising the shared humanity and equal status of all people regardless of
ethnic origin:
“O people!
Your Lord is One and your father is one. You are all from Adam, and Adam was
created from dust. Indeed, the most honoured of you in the sight of Allah is
the one with the most taqwa (piety). An Arab has no superiority over a
non-Arab, nor does a non-Arab have superiority over an Arab, except by taqwa” (Mujahid, 2000: 32).
This statement
remains a cornerstone in Islamic teachings on equality, affirming that the true
measure of human worth lies in moral character and piety, not ethnicity, race,
or language.
Management
of Religious and Ethnic Diversity in Islamic History
The mission of
Prophet Muhammad (S.A.W), as the final Messenger of Allah (SWT) and the seal of
prophethood, became pronounced in the seventh century. While in Makkah between
610 and 622 CE, amidst a predominantly polytheistic society, the Prophet
focused his message on Tawhīd (the oneness of Allah) and Taqwa (God-consciousness).
The Makkans attempted to persuade him to compromise by participating in the
worship of their 360 idols. However, the Prophet (S.A.W) firmly rejected such
overtures and instead preached religious freedom, asserting that each group was
free to practise its own beliefs. This principle is articulated in the Qur’ān
where Allah (SWT) commands:
“Say: O disbelievers! I do not worship what you worship… To you your
religion, and to me mine.” (Qur’ān 109:1–6).
The Prophet’s
commitment to inclusivity became even more pronounced during his time in
Madinah (622–632 CE), a city known for its religious and ethnic diversity.
There, Prophet Muhammad (S.A.W) established the Sahīfat al-Madīnah,
commonly referred to as the Constitution of Madinah. This document, considered
one of the earliest charters of civil governance, brought together Muslims,
Jews, Christians, and polytheists under a unified political community based on
principles of justice, tolerance, and mutual protection.
Tumin et al.
(2020:65) observe that Islam addressed religious diversity in Madinah through a
pragmatic framework, especially in its dealings with the Jewish tribes of
Madinah and the Christian delegation from Najrān. The Constitution of Madinah,
consisting of 47 clauses, enshrined fundamental human rights and religious
liberties. Among its key provisions were:
· Article 25: The Jews shall have their own religion and the Muslims
their own. This applies to their clients and to themselves, except for those
who act unjustly or treacherously, for they bring harm upon themselves and
their families.
· Article 37: Each party must support the other against any aggressor.
They must seek mutual advice and consultation. Loyalty protects against
betrayal...
· Article 40: The protected neighbour is as sacred as the protector
himself, provided he does not harm or betray.
Beyond the
Constitution, the Prophet (S.A.W) extended his commitment to interfaith harmony
through treaties with various non-Muslim communities. These included covenants
with the Christians of Najrān, the Monks of Mount Sinai, the Christians of
Persia, and others (Considine, 2016). Craig Considine’s analysis underscores
that these covenants illustrate the Prophet’s practical demonstration of
religious tolerance, inclusion, and accommodation.
The legacy of
religious pluralism and mutual respect was carried forward by the second
Caliph, ʿUmar ibn al-Khaṭṭāb (R.A), who ruled from 634 to 644 CE. During his visit to
Jerusalem in 638 CE, ʿUmar exemplified religious
tolerance. He declined to perform ṣalāt (prayer) inside a church, despite being invited, in order to
prevent future Muslims from using his action as a precedent to seize Christian
places of worship. Furthermore, he acted as an impartial adjudicator between
Christians and Jews concerning communal disputes in the city.
ʿUmar also issued a historic covenant guaranteeing the safety and
religious freedom of the people of Jerusalem. Part of the covenant reads:
In the name
of Allah, the Gracious, the Merciful. This is the assurance of peace granted by
the servant of Allah, ʿUmar, Commander of the
Faithful, to the people of Jerusalem. He grants them safety for their lives,
their property, their churches, and their crosses. Their churches shall not be
turned into dwellings or destroyed, nor shall their crosses or property be violated.
No coercion shall be placed upon them concerning their religion, and none of
them shall be harmed (Thowhidul, 2018:197).
This covenant
illustrates the high level of religious freedom, tolerance, and mutual
understanding practised during the era of the rightly guided caliphs—Abū Bakr
al-Ṣiddīq (632–634 CE), ʿUmar ibn al-Khaṭṭāb
(634–644 CE), ʿUthmān ibn ʿAffān (644–656 CE), and ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib (656–661 CE).
The trend
continued through the Umayyad (661–750 CE) and Abbasid (750–1258 CE)
caliphates. During the Umayyad era, non-Muslims—including Christians, Jews, and
Sabians—enjoyed considerable religious autonomy and protection of their places
of worship. In the Abbasid period, members of non-Muslim communities held
prominent roles in the bureaucracy and intellectual life. Christian patriarchs
and Jewish rabbis were entrusted with key clerical and administrative
responsibilities, reflecting the continuation of policies promoting pluralism
and coexistence (Thowhidul, 2018).
In summary,
from the prophetic period through the subsequent caliphates, Islamic governance
demonstrated a consistent pattern of respecting religious and ethnic diversity.
This tradition, grounded in the Qur’ān, Sunnah, and early Islamic
constitutional practice, offers enduring principles for managing pluralistic
societies.
In the later
development of Muslim states and societies, particularly during the Fatimid
Caliphate in Egypt and the period of Islamic rule in Spain, diverse ethnic and
religious groups came into contact with Islam and Muslims. Historical accounts
indicate that several Jews and Christians served in high-ranking positions
under Muslim caliphs. Notable among them were Ya‘qub ibn Killis and Hassan
Ibrahim, both of Jewish descent, and Badr al-Jamali, an Armenian Christian, who
occupied roles equivalent to ministers of defence and civil service (Thowhidul,
2018).
In Muslim
Spain, people of various races and religions—such as the Suevi, Goths, Vandals,
Romans, and Jews, were accorded equal rights alongside Muslims. It has been
documented that Muslim rule in Spain diminished the influence of the privileged
nobility and clergy. Furthermore, Islamic leadership improved the social
conditions of the servile class and extended to Christian landowners the right
to alienate their property, a right previously denied under Visigothic rule
(Thowhidul, 2018).
Highlighting
the religious tolerance and inclusivism experienced by Jews and Christians
under Muslim governance in Spain, Yitik (2004:5) observes:
“In Islamic
history, religious persecution of the members of other faiths was almost
absent. The rule ‘Let there be no compulsion in religion’ has banned Muslims
from practising what is called religious persecution against non-Muslims. Jews
and Christians under Muslim rule were not subject to exile, apostasy or death,
which was the choice offered to Muslims and Jews in re-conquered Spain. And
Christians and Jews were not subject to any major territorial and occupational
restrictions such as were the common lot of Jews in pre-modern Europe.”
By contrast,
the management of religious and ethnic pluralism in some contemporary
Muslim-majority societies has not reflected the inclusive values upheld during
the Prophet's time and the early caliphates. For example, according to the
United States State Department, Saudi Arabia imposes strict limitations on
religious minorities. Public expressions of Christianity and other non-Islamic
religions are reportedly prohibited under Saudi law. Similarly, in Syria and
Iraq, non-Muslims are said to face varying degrees of religious persecution.
Nonetheless,
several Muslim-majority countries continue to uphold the principles of
tolerance and coexistence exemplified by the Prophet Muhammad. These countries
include Turkey, Albania, Gambia, Kazakhstan, Senegal, and Uzbekistan
(Considine, 2016). Recalling the flourishing atmosphere of religious and ethnic
harmony during the classical Islamic period, Tumin et al. (2020:65) note:
“During the
golden ages of Islam (750–1258 CE), people of all races and ethnic groups lived
and worked together for the Muslim empires at that time, especially in the
cities of Baghdad and Cordova. People of different religions and beliefs such
as Muslims, Jews, Christians and the worshippers of fire collaborated to expand
knowledge and conducted scientific research like translating ancient
manuscripts from Greek, Persian, Indian and other languages into Arabic.”
Manifestation
of Religious and Ethnic Pluralism in Contemporary Nigeria
Nigeria is
widely recognised as a multi-cultural, multi-ethnic, and multi-religious
nation, where individuals from diverse cultural, linguistic, religious, and
ethnic backgrounds coexist. Within this pluralistic setting, citizens openly
and freely express their religious beliefs and practices in both private and
public domains. Nigeria is also the most populous country in Africa. According
to the United Nations World Population Prospects (2022), the population was
estimated at 218,541,212 in 2022 and projected to reach approximately
223,804,632 (224 million) by 2023.
The three
principal religions in Nigeria are Islam, Christianity, and Traditional African
Religion, with Islam and Christianity being the most prominent. Data from the
Pew Research Center (2018) indicate that the Muslim population was
approximately 78,056,000, accounting for between 50% and 52% of the national
population, while the Christian population was estimated at 76,281,000,
representing 46% to 48%. Adherents of Traditional Religion constituted about
0.6%, and those who follow other faiths made up approximately 1.3%.
Religious
pluralism in Nigeria is further reflected in the internal diversity of the
major religions. Within Islam, adherents include Sunni Muslims—many of whom
belong to the Sufi brotherhoods of Qādiriyyah and Tijaniyyah—as well as
Shi‘ites, members of the Ahmadiyyah movement, and followers of Kala Kato.
Christianity in Nigeria is also composed of numerous sects and denominations.
These include Evangelicals, Roman Catholics, Anglicans, Pentecostals, Baptists,
Methodists, Presbyterians, members of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day
Saints, and Jehovah’s Witnesses (Garba, 2020). Other denominations include the
Seventh-day Adventists and the African-initiated Aladura churches such as the
Celestial Church of Christ and the Cherubim and Seraphim Church.
Beyond the
three dominant religions, a small segment of the Nigerian population adheres to
other faiths, including Judaism, Hinduism, the Baháʼí Faith, Chrislam, the Grail Movement, the Rosicrucian Order,
Freemasonry, and the Reformed Ogboni Fraternity.
In 2018,
available record showed that Nigeria had about 400 ethnic groups. The major
ethnic groups in Nigeria are Hausa, Yoruba, Igbo (Ibo), and Fulani. Hausa
people, an ethnic group that speak Hausa language made up of 30 percent of the
Nigerian population, Both Yoruba and Igbo ethnic groups constituted 30 percent
while 6 percent of Nigerians were Fulani ethnic group. The remaining 34 percent
of the population was shared among the minority ethnic groups of Tiv,
Kanuri/Beriberi, Ijaw/Izon and others. The ethnic groups are found in the major
southern and northern regions of the country. For the Northern region, the
commonly found ethnic groups are the Hausa, Kanuri and Fulani. The southern
region constitutes majorly Yoruba, Igbo and Niger Delta people (Dokua, 2018).
While giving a comprehensive report on the Nigerian religious and ethnic
diversity in 2020, Office of the International Religious Freedom, United States
Department of State reports thus:
The Hausa,
Fulani and Kanuri ethnic groups are most prevalent in the predominantly Muslim
North-West and North-East regions. Significant numbers of Christians, including
some Hausa, Fulani and Kanuri also reside in the North-East and North-West.
Christians and Muslims reside in approximately equal numbers in the
North-Central and South-West regions, including Lagos where the Yoruba ethnic
group-whose members include both Muslims and Christians, predominate. In the
South-East and South-South regions, where the Igbo ethnic group is dominant,
Christians groups, including Catholics, Anglicans and Methodists, constitute
the majority. In the Niger Delta region, where ethnic groups include Ijaw,
Igbo, Ogoni, Efik, Ibibio and Urohobo, among others, Christians form a
substantial majority; a small but growing minority of the population is Muslim.
Evangelical Christian denominations are growing rapidly in the North Central and
South East, South-South and South-West regions. Ahmadi Muslims maintain small
presence in several cities, including Lagos and Abuja. The Shia Muslim presence
is heavily concentrated in the North-West region states of Kaduna, Katsina,
Sokoto, Zamfara and Kano (International Religious Freedom Report, 2020:4).
Historically,
since the 19th Century, Nigeria has not been able to manage its
religious and ethnic pluralism due to the British colonisation that promoted
evangelization through western education, the rise of Pentecostalism and
Salafism that preached religious exclusivism and particularism and the rise of
fundamentalist and extremist groups such as Islamic West Africa Province
(ISWAP) and Boko Haram that misinterpreted Islamic texts, declared takfir (unbelief)
on Muslims and waged Jihad against Muslims and non-Muslims in the Northern
Nigeria and the politicisation of religion by the Nigerian political class
(Owoyemi, 2020).
From the
foregoing, one may assume that the plurality of Nigeria ought to be a source of
strength and blessing for the country, but the reverse is the case if one
considers the prevalent ethno-religious situation which has had adverse effect
on the socio-economic and political affairs of Nigeria since 1999 when the
country returned to democratic dispensation. The religiously motivated violent
crises which Nigerians had experienced in the past reveal the fact that
religious pluralism has not been effectively managed by the government and
religious practitioners. It is on record that some Traditional Religious
practitioners and Muslims had, at one time or the other, clashed. Some of the
clashes between Muslims and Traditionalists in the South-west include Shaykh
Dandawi clash with Ogun worshippers in Ado-Ekiti, Ajagbemokeferi vs Oloolu
religious riot in Ibadan, Osogbo Muslim-Osun devotees’ conflict and Gangaro Masquerade/Muslim
religious violence in Osogbo (Salisu, 2014). Similarly, some adherents of Islam
and Christianity had fought and killed one another all in the name of God. For
instance, the introduction and implementation of Shari’ah law
in the Northern Nigeria, the introduction of Islamic Bank, Jaiz in
Nigeria and the wearing of Hijab by female students in the
south-west public schools are among the religious issues that have claimed
lives of some Nigerian Muslims and Christians (Quadri, 2013).
Nigeria has
witnessed both the intra and inter-religious conflicts. For instance, due to
doctrinal and ideological differences, a Muslim group will accuse another
Muslim group of infidelity and heretical practices. For example, ahlul-sunnah (group
that claims to have followed the footsteps of Prophet Muhammad (S.A.W.)) has
accused ahl-Tariqah (the Sufis) of heretical innovations in
Islam. Similar accusation of infidelity is levied by the protestant churches
against the Catholic Church (Nweke, 2019).
The negative
exhibition of ethnicity has also been identified as a major factor contributing
to the underdevelopment of Nigeria. The recurring desire of one ethnic group to
dominate another remains a pervasive issue across the country. This fear of
ethnic domination, especially among minority groups, was one of the root causes
of the Nigerian Civil War, which lasted for thirty months. The aftermath of the
war continues to foster ethnic suspicion, division, and animosity in
contemporary Nigeria.
Commenting on
the detrimental effects of ethnicity on political development, Umenzinwa
(2012:221) notes:
“The level
of ethnic rivalry in Nigeria has made it impossible for her to produce the
right leaders who live above boards, who exude impeccable and predictable
character, and who are ready to spend themselves for the development of the
nation. Ethnic affiliation has not allowed such leaders to emerge. At each
election, the emphasis has always been on where the candidates come from rather
than on the right candidates for the election.”
From the
foregoing, it is evident that both religious and ethnic pluralism have not been
properly managed in Nigeria, despite constitutional provisions guaranteeing
freedom of religion and protection of cultural diversity. The 1999 Constitution
of the Federal Republic of Nigeria explicitly protects this right. Chapter IV,
Section 38 states:
“Every
person shall be entitled to freedom of thought, conscience and religion,
including freedom to change his religion or belief, and freedom (either alone
or in community with others, and in public or in private) to manifest and
propagate his religion or belief in worship, teaching, practice and observance” (Ministry
of Information and Culture, 2004:78).
Regrettably,
some Nigerian politicians have exploited religion and ethnicity as tools for
political mobilisation and manipulation, often at the expense of national
cohesion, effective governance, and sustainable development. A recent
illustration of this is the controversy surrounding the Muslim-Muslim
presidential ticket of the All Progressives Congress (APC), featuring Bola
Ahmed Tinubu and Kashim Shettima in the 2023 general elections. The ticket drew
widespread criticism and reignited debates over religious balance in national
leadership, further highlighting how religious intolerance and ethnic sentiment
continue to obstruct national progress.
This raises a
fundamental question: how can Nigeria learn from the experiences of early
Muslim societies, particularly those from the 7th century onward, in managing
religious and ethnic diversity? The subsequent sections of this paper seek to
address this pertinent issue.
Lessons for
Nigerians on the Management of Religious and Ethnic Pluralism in the Muslim
World
The plurality
of Nigeria is incontrovertible. This diversity is clearly evident in the
multiplicity of cultures, languages, ethnicities, and religions represented
across the six geo-political zones, namely, North-East, North-West,
North-Central, South-East, South-South, and South-West. Fundamentally, all
human beings, irrespective of their colours, ethnicities, and languages,
originate from a common ancestral lineage, Adam and Ḥawwāʼ (Eve), as taught in
the Qur’ān (Q4:1, Q49:13). Therefore, adherents of different religions and
members of various ethnic groups in Nigeria ought to perceive themselves as
part of a single, unified human family. Nigerians from diverse ethnic
backgrounds are encouraged to coexist peacefully and harmoniously, as
exemplified by the city of Madinah, where intercommunal cooperation thrived. In
the Nigerian context, it is practically unfeasible for any ethnic group to live
in isolation without economic and political interdependence. Muslims alone
cannot advance Nigeria’s political and economic development without the
collaboration of adherents of Christianity, Traditional Religion, and other
belief systems. Likewise, ethnic groups such as the Hausa, Fulani, Kanuri, and
Tiv in the Northern region cannot independently meet their economic needs
without interacting with other ethnic groups from the South-East and
South-West, and vice versa. From an Islamic perspective, every ethnic group is
indispensable, and every Nigerian deserves a sense of belonging, as all human
beings share a common origin, Adam and Eve (Q4:1).
During the
lifetime of Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him) in Madinah (622–632 CE),
religious inclusivism and tolerance were both encouraged and practiced among
Arabs of various tribes and clans who professed Paganism, Judaism,
Christianity, and Islam. A cordial and robust interfaith relationship existed
between the Prophet and the Ahl al-Kitāb (People of the Book,
i.e., Jews and Christians) in Madinah. This historical relationship
demonstrates that Islam acknowledges and promotes religious pluralism and
inclusivism. Consequently, adherents of Islam, Christianity, and Traditional
Religion in Nigeria may draw lessons from the Prophet’s life and that of his
successors in managing religious and ethnic diversity. The propagation of
exclusivist and particularist ideologies by some religious practitioners has
hampered constructive interfaith relations in Nigeria. The absolutist claim by
some religious adherents that only their faith guarantees salvation or paradise
is detrimental to fostering interreligious dialogue and interaction. Given the
historical endurance of Traditional Religion, Islam, and Christianity in
Nigeria, it is plausible to assert that each contains elements of truth. From
the Islamic viewpoint, the existence of multiple religions is a divine design,
as God allows for different paths to reach Him (Q10:99). Therefore, every
religion should be accommodated and tolerated within Nigeria’s pluralistic
framework (Q2:256, Q109:1–6).
An additional
lesson that Nigerians can draw from the Muslim world concerning the management
of religious and ethnic diversity lies in the historical precedent of treaties
and peaceful negotiations between Muslims and non-Muslims living in
Muslim-majority societies. The treaties, covenants, and constitutional
arrangements established during the lifetime of Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon
him) enabled non-Muslims to live peacefully within the Muslim community. For
instance, the Covenant with the Christians of Najran, the Covenant with the
Christians of Persia, and the Constitution of Madinah were all formulated to
ensure the peaceful coexistence and religious freedom of Christians and Jews
(Thowhidul, 2018). In the modern era, Muslim-majority countries such as Turkey,
Albania, Egypt, Indonesia, Kazakhstan, and Uzbekistan have continued this
legacy by managing religious and ethnic pluralism effectively. In these
nations, individuals of various faiths are permitted to practice their
religions without fear or persecution.
Nigeria, being
a multi-religious state, should take cues from these countries by reinforcing
its religious institutions. This could be achieved through legislative actions
by the National and State Assemblies, including the establishment of a Federal
Ministry of Religious Affairs and state-level legislation tailored to managing
religious and ethnic diversity. Additionally, every state should establish an
interreligious or interfaith council, following the precedent set by Prophet
Muhammad (peace be upon him) and his successors, to promote dialogue and
interaction between adherents of different religions, especially among Muslims
and Christians.
Conclusion
The study has
demonstrated that religious and ethnic pluralism constitute fundamental aspects
of human existence. Since the 7th century, Islamic teachings have provided
guidance on managing religious and ethnic diversity through the promotion of
religious freedom, tolerance, love, and peaceful coexistence with people of
varying cultural and religious backgrounds, as enshrined in the Islamic
scriptures. However, the legacy of British colonisation, the emergence of
religious exclusivism and particularism in the 19th century, and the
politicisation of religion by the political class in the 21st century have
significantly hindered Nigeria—a multi-religious and multi-ethnic nation—from
effectively managing its religious and ethnic diversity for socio-economic and
political advancement in the contemporary era. It is posited that if Nigerians
draw practical lessons from the Muslim world's approach to religious and ethnic
pluralism, the country could experience meaningful development and sustained
peaceful coexistence among adherents of different faiths and ethnic groups.
Recommendations
Arising from
this study, the following recommendations are offered with a view to managing
religious and ethnic pluralism in Nigeria for national development:
(i) Nigerians, irrespective of their ethnic backgrounds or tribal
affiliations, should see themselves as members of the same family or
progenitor-Adam and Hawa’ and exhibit love among themselves. Hence, Hausa,
Igbo, Yoruba and other ethnic groups in Nigeria should trace their common
origin to their fore parents-Adam and Hawa (Eve) by coming together as one big
family for the unity, peace and development of Nigeria.
(ii) Nigerian
government at all levels should strengthen their religious institutions by
making laws through state and federal legislatures for the management of
religious pluralism that will promote religious inclusivism and tolerance.
(iii) Federal
and state governments should establish a Ministry of Religious and Cultural
Affairs for the management of religious and ethnic diversity at the state and
federal levels.
(iv) Individuals
belonging to different faiths (Islam, Christianity, Traditional Religion and
others) should encourage and promote interfaith dialogues through the
establishment of interfaith council or committee at local government level by
the apex religious bodies such as Nigerian Supreme Council of Islamic Affairs
(NSCIA) and Christian Association of Nigeria (CAN).
(v) Nigerians of diverse
religious and ethnic backgrounds should exhibit their religious doctrines that
teach love, tolerance, good neighbourliness, truthfulness, sincerity, peace,
etc., that are germane to the development of the country.
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