Public Health Intervention through Water, Sanitation and Hygiene Programs: Efforts of Rotary Clubs in Vulnerable Communities of Ogun State, Nigeria (1990-2020)

Cite this article: Lasisi, S. A. 2026. “Public Health Intervention through Water, Sanitation and Hygiene Programs: Efforts of Rotary Clubs in Vulnerable Communities of Ogun State, Nigeria (1990-2020)”. Sokoto Journal of History Vol. 14, Iss. 01. Pp. 118-130. www.doi.org/10.36349/sokotojh.2026.v14i01.011

PUBLIC HEALTH INTERVENTION THROUGH WATER, SANITATION AND HYGIENE PROGRAMS: EFFORTS OF ROTARY CLUBS IN VULNERABLE COMMUNITIES OF OGUN STATE, NIGERIA (1990-2020)

By

Sekinat Adebusola LASISI

Fehintola Tunbosun AKINWALE

Seun Adedokun OKUNADE

 

Department of History and Diplomatic Studies,

Faculty of Arts,

Olabisi Onabanjo University,

Ago-Iwoye, Ogun State

Abstract: Public health is an important component of community well-being, and having access to clean water, good sanitation, and proper hygiene practices is crucial for disease prevention and quality of life. These fundamental needs are frequently unfulfilled in many disadvantaged communities, resulting in a higher prevalence of waterborne and sanitation-related diseases. This study investigated the efforts of Rotary clubs in Ogun State in implementing public health interventions through Water, Sanitation and Hygiene (WASH) programs. It used a qualitative historical research design, with data collected from interviews with Rotary club members, community leaders, government officials, and health workers, as well as participant observation techniques. The analysis revealed that Rotary clubs have played a pivotal role in improving access to clean water, constructing sanitation facilities, and promoting hygiene education in vulnerable communities of Ogun State. However, the study also identified funding constraints, inadequate government support and policy frameworks, limited community awareness and participation, poor maintenance culture, and logistical challenges. The study concludes that Rotary clubs have made significant contributions to improve public health outcomes through WASH programs in vulnerable communities in Ogun State. The research underscores the importance of sustained funding in the long-term success of WASH programs, adequate government support, appropriate community awareness and participation, a proper maintenance culture, and institutionalized partnerships between Rotary clubs, government, and non-governmental organizations.

Keywords: Public Health Intervention; Rotary Clubs, Vulnerable Communities; WASH Programs

Introduction

Public health, understood as the science and art of preventing disease, prolonging life, and promoting well-being through organized societal efforts, has long been central to community development and human survival.¹ Unlike clinical medicine, which focuses primarily on diagnosing and treating illness at the individual level, public health emphasizes prevention by addressing the social, environmental, and economic determinants that shape health outcomes.²  Its scope extends beyond disease control to include emergency preparedness, disaster response and recovery, environmental risk reduction, and the promotion of healthy behaviors.³ Historically, public health interventions have significantly improved living standards, reduced mortality and disability, protected maternal and child health, and curbed the spread of infectious diseases such as polio, malaria, and tuberculosis.⁴  By preventing epidemics, mitigating environmental hazards, promoting injury prevention, and ensuring equitable access to health resources, public health has played a transformative role in building resilient and productive societies.⁵

Within this broader public health framework, water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) occupy a foundational position.⁶ Access to clean water, safe sanitation, and appropriate hygiene practices is indispensable to safeguarding human health and dignity. WASH interventions directly prevent waterborne and sanitation-related diseases such as diarrhea, cholera, typhoid, and polio, ⁷ which disproportionately affect vulnerable populations, especially children under five.⁸ Beyond disease prevention, effective WASH systems contribute to improved educational outcomes, enhanced child development, environmental sustainability, and economic productivity.⁹ The provision of safe water and sanitation facilities reduces time burdens, particularly for women and girls, enhances school attendance, and fosters community resilience. Recognized as a fundamental human right and integral to the attainment of the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), particularly Goal 6, WASH is central to global efforts aimed at poverty reduction, social inclusion, and sustainable development.¹⁰ Achieving universal access by 2030 requires sustained investments in infrastructure, ecosystem protection, hygiene education, and multi-level collaboration.¹¹

Despite global commitments, access to basic WASH services remains deeply unequal. Billions of people worldwide lack safely managed drinking water, sanitation, and hygiene facilities.¹² Millions of preventable deaths each year, many of them among young children are linked to inadequate WASH conditions, with sub-Saharan Africa bearing a disproportionate burden.¹³ The persistence of unsafe water sources, open defecation, and poor hygiene practices continues to undermine health systems, entrench poverty, and widen social inequalities.¹⁴  Recognizing these challenges, the United Nations General Assembly formally acknowledged safe and clean drinking water and sanitation as a human right in 2010,¹⁵ a commitment reaffirmed in subsequent resolutions.¹⁶  Nevertheless, progress remains uneven, particularly in developing countries where infrastructural deficits, rapid urbanization, environmental degradation, and limited financial resources constrain implementation.¹⁷ Addressing these structural barriers demands coordinated efforts among governments, international organizations, civil society actors, and local communities.¹⁸

Non-governmental organizations (NGOs), intergovernmental organizations (IGOs), and international partners play critical roles in advancing WASH initiatives through funding, technical support, policy advocacy, and grassroots implementation.¹⁹ Organizations such as WHO, UNICEF, the World Bank Group, UNDP, IOM, IFRC, and international NGOs including World Vision, Water Aid, and Global Water Partnership have expanded access to sustainable water and sanitation services across multiple regions. Among these actors,²⁰ Rotary International has emerged as a significant contributor to global WASH programming.²¹ Through its local clubs and partnerships, Rotary has invested substantial resources in providing boreholes, toilets, hand-washing stations, hygiene education, and water management systems in countries across Asia, Africa, and Latin America.²² Since 2013, thousands of WASH projects²³ have been implemented worldwide,²⁴ improving access to safe water and sanitation in schools and underserved communities.²⁵  In Nigeria, Rotary clubs have undertaken similar initiatives in markets, schools, ²⁶ and vulnerable communities by installing boreholes, sanitation facilities, and hygiene infrastructure.²⁷

However, despite extensive reporting on WASH interventions nationally,²⁸ the specific contributions of Rotary clubs, particularly in Ogun State, remain insufficiently examined in scholarly literature. A systematic interrogation of their public health interventions is therefore necessary. Such research would illuminate best practices in community engagement, identify gaps in existing strategies, and contribute to the development of more inclusive and effective public health policies. By filling this gap, the study not only advances academic discourse but also provides practical insights for strengthening sustainable WASH interventions in disadvantaged communities.

Research Objectives and Methodology

The central objective of this research is to investigate the efforts of Rotary Clubs in Ogun State in implementing Water, Sanitation and Hygiene (WASH) programs. Specifically, this research aims to achieve the following objectives:

i)          To provide an overview of Ogun State and availability of WASH program in vulnerable communities.

ii)        To assess the WASH intervention programs of Rotary clubs in vulnerable communities in Ogun State.

iii)      To identify the challenges faced by Rotary clubs during the implementation of their WASH intervention programs in vulnerable communities in Ogun State.

iv)      To highlight the prospects and sustainability of WASH programs in vulnerable communities in Ogun State.

To successfully accomplish the above objectives, this study employed historical research design. As one of the qualitative research methods, historical research design aims to systematically capture the historical figures, events, and concepts, which have shaped and influenced the present.”²⁹ The historical method examines the questions that require answers from the respondents through interviews in order to allow the researcher interpret past events and draw conclusions about them. This method relied on both primary and secondary sources of data. The primary data were obtained through face-to-face and telephone interviews. Overall, fourteen (14) respondents were interviewed to assess their perceptions, ideas and views on WASH programs of Rotary clubs in Ogun State. Samples included members of the Rotary clubs in Ogun State, officials of Ogun State Primary Health Care Development Board (PHCDB), staff members of the Ogun State Ministry of Health, Local Government Primary Health Centres (PHCs), and community leaders. Data collected from the interview sessions were transcribed, processed, discussed, and applied thematically in the study. The secondary data were acquired from journals, articles, books, newspapers, online materials, government publications, published and unpublished theses and dissertations, in addition to press reports from Rotary International and clubs at various levels. The information from secondary sources were carefully utilized in the review of the literature.

Results and Discussion

1.      An Overview of Ogun State and Its Demographics on WASH Program

Ogun State is located in southwest Nigeria and shares borders with Lagos, Oyo, Osun, Ondo, and the Benin Republic. Named after the Ogun River, which flows across it from north to south, it was established on February 3, 1976, from the old Western State of Nigeria. Ogun State is surrounded by the Republic of Benin to the west, Lagos State to the south, Ondo State to the east, and the states of Oyo and Osun to the north.³⁰ It comprises twenty (20) Local Government Areas (LGAs) as shown in the map below:

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Figure 1: Map of Ogun State Nigeria indicating the 20 LGAs

 

The analysis of the interviews conducted with the respondents shows that Ogun State has a wide range of public and private health facilities, including primary healthcare centers, general hospitals, specialist hospitals, and clinics. Those facilities are supervised and accredited by the Ministry of Health and the Ogun State Hospital Management Board. In order to fill in the gaps in public infrastructure, it is established that Ogun State’s Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene (WASH) facilities are run by government organizations like the Ogun State Water Corporation and assisted by private sector collaborations like WHO, UNICEF, and Rotary, among others. Finding from the analyzed interviews indicate that numerous communities in Ogun State deal with water scarcity or contaminated water sources. They have inadequate waste disposal and sanitary facilities, including toilets. Therefore, Ogun State is one of the states lacking access to clean water, sanitation, and hygienic conditions.³¹ This supports Olufadewa et al.’s findings that Ogun and Oyo States have poor sanitation, contaminated drinking water, and increased susceptibility to climate-related risks. As a result, residents of these states face health and environmental problems, such as respiratory ailments, waterborne illnesses, and climate-related health risks made worse by poor air quality and extreme heat.³²

The above finding is further corroborated with the 2021 Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene National Outcome Routine Mapping, which was carried out in partnership with the Federal Ministry of Water Resources and the National Bureau of Statistics, showing that 38% of Ogun State inhabitants drink contaminated water. According to this report, only 34% of Ogun State residents have access to safely managed water. Furthermore, only 9% of Ogun State’s population has access to basic hygienic facilities.³³ It is noted that as of late 2024, open defecation was still practiced in about 62.2 percent of the 20 Local Government Areas (LGAs) in the State. There are areas in each of the twenty LGAs where this practice is still in place. Approximately 18% of the population still uses unimproved facilities, such as bucket latrines or pit latrines without slabs, even though 55% of people use “safely managed” sanitation. It is also reported that just 27.5 percent of households with toilets have a hand washing basin, despite the fact that access to basic hygiene services is still extremely low, at about 9 percent of the population.³⁴

2.      WASH Intervention Programs Implemented by Rotary Clubs in Ogun State’s Vulnerable Communities

It should be noted that one of Rotary International’s six areas of focus is to provide access to clean water and sanitation. A healthy environment and a happy life depend on having access to clean water, sanitization facilities, and hygiene education. Clean water is vital to many Nigerian communities in order to enhance the general health of its residents. For Rotary International, it is appropriate to build borehole water systems in some of these communities and public areas, such as markets, to ensure that people are not drinking from tainted water that could spread polio or other infectious diseases. Rotary clubs around the world, particularly in Nigeria, place a strong premium on ensuring that individuals and communities have access to sanitary facilities and clean water. In accordance with the new Endgame Strategy, the PolioPlus program has actively provided potable water to vulnerable communities, particularly in areas where the illness is endemic.³⁵

According to findings from the analysis of interviews with various stakeholders, Rotary International through Rotary’s People of Action, and Water, Sanitation and Hygiene (WASH) programs has mobilized resources, formed partnerships, invested in infrastructure and training, and supported waste management, latrine construction, hygiene education, and water purification through grants and fundraisers.³⁶ The Rotary Club of Ijebu-Ode built a borehole water system for Oke Aje Market in Ijebu-Ode. The finished borehole was put into service on October 23, 2019.³⁷ The Obantoko Rotary Club funded the drilling of a borehole at Oshiele Market and bought a new generator to power it. Both were handed over to the Babaloja and Iyaloja of the market.³⁸ In order to supply water to the rural people, the Rotary Club of Ijebu Ife Sunrise also restored roughly three (3) moribund boreholes in 2013.³⁹ In 2017, the Rotary Club of Ijagun funded the drilling of a borehole for Araromi Primary School, a public primary school located behind the TASUED campus. In 2018, the club renovated a six-room toilets at the same school.⁴⁰

Moreover, the Rotary Club of Ota sank boreholes in the communities that were most in need of clean water and sanitation. The Club dug three boreholes in the Ado-Odo neighborhood. In order to promote the community’s residents’ health, boreholes and restrooms were installed in 2012.⁴¹ Similarly, more than 10 boreholes in Ijebu-Ife town alone were rehabilitated by the Rotary Club of Ijebu Ife Sunrise.⁴² Additionally, the Rotary Club of Obantoko restored the run-down and abandoned school restrooms at Asero Abeokuta’s Egba High School. In 2017, a new borehole facility with purified water was also built for the school.⁴³ The Rotary Club of Elega constructed toilet facility at Elega Market. The club also repaired three moribund boreholes in Elega and Iberekodo communities.⁴⁴

The Rotary Club of Abeokuta Metro funded the drilling of a new borehole at Baptist Primary School in Bode Ijaiye, Abeokuta. It also constructed a new set of restroom facilities at the same school.⁴⁵ Another borehole was sponsored at the Adigbe neighborhood, and another at Juvenile Homes in Asero Abeokuta.⁴⁶ The Rotary Club of Abeokuta Metro occasionally cleansed the age-old garbage dump site at Baptist Day Primary School Ijaiye, and later provided refuse baskets and incinerators for use by students who regularly urinate and defecate on the site.⁴⁷ The Rotary Club of Ilaro Oronna established a borehole project in Ebute Igbooro.⁴⁸ It also completed projects such as a four-room block of water closet toilets at Community Primary School in Oke-Okuta and another at Yewa College in Ilaro.⁴⁹

The Rotary Club of Oke-Ona Egba funded the installation of boreholes at Premier Model Primary School, Ayetoro Road, and Holy Trinity Primary School, Abeokuta, as well as waste bins in market areas.⁵⁰ Rotary clubs in Abeokuta, in partnership with Rotary International District 9110, built a new block of four toilets with a borehole and overhead tank at St. John’s Anglican Primary School in Kuto Abeokuta. The club also constructed toilets for Christ Apostolic Primary School in 2013.⁵¹ The Rotary Club of Omole-Golden, District 9110, provided water and bathroom facilities to students at Ajuwon High School in Ifo Local Government Area, Ogun State, in 2014. The water and sanitation project, which included borehole water and toilets, was part of the effort to provide a welcoming environment for students and teachers. Rotary clubs have also supplied clean drinking water, gender-segregated restrooms, handwashing stations, and hygiene and menstrual hygiene management education to students and teachers in various schools in order to enhance both their health and attendance.⁵²

The foregoing demonstrates that Rotary clubs in Ogun State have strongly pursued and implemented WASH programs to provide clean water to vulnerable communities in order to prevent and combat infectious diseases. They ensured that borehole water systems, as well as toilet and sanitation facilities, were installed in various communities, providing residents with a consistent supply of clean water and basic sanitation services. In truth, the Rotary clubs’ installation of toilets, boreholes, sanitary facilities, and water tanks has improved the situation for many children in Ogun State’s public schools.

3.      Challenges faced by Rotary Clubs during the Implementation of WASH Intervention Programs in Ogun State’s Vulnerable Communities

This section covers the analysis of the interviews conducted with the respondents on the identified challenges faced by Rotary clubs during the implementation of their WASH intervention programs in Ogun State’s vulnerable communities. These are presented under the following sub-headings:

Funding Constraints

When launching WASH intervention programs in vulnerable communities, Ogun State Rotary clubs faced a major obstacle, i.e., funding constraints. The respondents who were interviewed stated that Rotary clubs fund their initiatives through donations, membership fees, and sponsorships. This limited the funding of WASH projects like boreholes, purchase of handwashing stations, toilets, water pumps, and hygiene instructional materials in underdeveloped and impoverished regions in Ogun State.⁵³ It also played a part in the project’s incomplete or delayed execution. It should be mentioned that WASH programs frequently demand a large initial outlay of funds. For instance, sanitation facilities need to be built and maintained on a regular basis, water supply systems can be costly to establish and operate, and hygiene education programs include training materials, workshops, and community engagement activities. Financial limitations might make it challenging to maintain a project over time, even after it has been successfully completed. The upkeep of sanitary facilities and water systems may also be impacted. Above all, financial support is necessary for community involvement because it may be challenging to sustain local participation or guarantee upkeep without sufficient funding.⁵⁴

Inadequate Government Support and Policy Frameworks

Inadequate government investment in sanitary infrastructure reflects that many communities lack suitable latrines, septic tanks, and waste management systems. This causes environmental pollution, health concerns, and bad hygiene habits. This study reveals that limited government assistance and policy frameworks are a major challenge for WASH programs in vulnerable areas, particularly those in Ogun State. While Rotary clubs take the lead in implementing WASH measures, one of the hurdles to the programs’ efficacy is a lack of sufficient policy backing from the government.⁵⁵ The research reveals a lack of clear, comprehensive policies that drive the development, implementation, and monitoring of WASH initiatives in Ogun State, and these policy gaps have resulted in inconsistent implementation of water and sanitation projects across different areas. Thus, insufficient legislative frameworks have hampered the implementation of sanitation standards and the protection of water sources. Furthermore, there is frequently a lack of coordination among the various government entities in charge of water, sanitation, and public health, resulting in inefficient resource utilization.⁵⁶ Without government support, many communities in Ogun State continue to rely on dangerous water sources such as surface water, contaminated wells, or even rainwater, increasing the risk of waterborne diseases including as cholera, typhoid, and dysentery. Furthermore, hygiene education programs may be difficult to conduct without government support.⁵⁷

Limited Community Awareness and Participation

Rotary clubs in Ogun State face one of the major challenges in implementing WASH initiatives in vulnerable communities due to a lack of community awareness and engagement. Rotary clubs’ efforts were hampered by these problems, resulting in limited sustainability. Many communities have limited access to information regarding WASH programs. Limited access to education or health awareness initiatives might lead to a misunderstanding of the importance of clean water and sanitation.⁵⁸ It is highlighted that many people in such communities lack basic knowledge of hygiene, sanitation, and water safety, which has resulted in unsanitary habits such as open defecation. Some communities regard open defecation as usual.⁵⁹ Low participation might be attributed to a lack of incentives or awareness of the long-term benefits of WASH programs. Sanitation and hygiene measures may not be implemented effectively without community awareness and engagement. This might result in the ongoing use of dangerous water sources, open defecation, and poor hygiene practices. Poor hygiene and sanitation can lead to greater disease rates, poorer child health, and economic losses from illness. Lack of community involvement may result in project failure.⁶⁰ As a result, without community participation, WASH programs may not achieve the targeted health outcomes. WASH programs will be more effective, sustainable, and impactful if they raise awareness and involve communities in planning and implementation. Community involvement is critical to guaranteeing long-term success and enhancing public health and well-being in the population.

Poor Maintenance Culture

Poor maintenance culture poses a serious threat to the implementation of Rotary clubs’ WASH projects in Ogun State’s communities. According to Olusesi and others, poor maintenance culture is the neglect of sanitation facilities (e.g., latrines, hand washing stations), the failure to repair or replace broken water sources (e.g., boreholes), the lack of regular cleaning and hygiene practices in public and private spaces, the inconsistent use of sanitation facilities due to poor upkeep, and the lack of community awareness or responsibility for infrastructure maintenance. According to the interviewed community leaders, certain WASH projects are not community-driven, making them less likely to be sustained.⁶¹ Rotary clubs can also provide training to local community members on WASH management, hygiene education, and sanitation facility maintenance. Furthermore, local leaders might be empowered to take responsibility of WASH projects. In addition, capacity-building projects can assist local communities in monitoring and maintaining their own sanitation and water infrastructure. In the absence of the aforementioned requirements, communities do not feel accountable for maintaining sanitation and water infrastructure. Poorly maintained sanitation facilities may contaminate water sources and promote disease transmission. It also leads to a return to open defecation and unsanitary behaviors, raising the risk of waterborne infections (e.g., cholera, dysentery). Rotary clubs should thus collaborate with local communities and non-governmental organisations (NGOs) to ensure the sustainability of their WASH intervention programmes in these places. They should create a mechanism for monitoring the state of sanitation facilities and water supplies.⁶²

Logistical Challenges

Despite Rotary clubs’ interventions and efforts, logistical problems continue to affect the implementation of WASH programs in vulnerable areas across Ogun State. It is documented that some isolated or rural areas of the state have inadequate road networks, making it difficult to site WASH projects despite the need for it. In some areas, poor road affected the transportation of materials and equipment for WASH projects. In other words, some Rotary clubs in Ogun State have resolved to make WASH projects available in distant villages, but they face difficulties in implementing or maintaining the projects due to bad roads. Logistical issues frequently cause delays in the implementation of WASH programs, resulting in wasted chances to improve public health and the well-being of vulnerable communities. Rotary clubs in Ogun State will benefit from collaborating with community leaders to ensure logistical assistance and resource allocation, as well as working with local communities to exchange information, resources, and best practices.⁶³

4.      Prospects and Sustainability of WASH Programs in Ogun State Communities

WASH programs are essential for improving public health, reducing disease transmission, and promoting sustainable development in vulnerable communities. In Ogun State, Nigeria, where urbanization, poverty, and environmental concerns are pervasive, WASH activities are crucial in improving the quality of life for vulnerable communities. Vulnerable communities in Ogun State frequently face limited access to clean water and sanitation facilities, high prevalence of waterborne diseases such as cholera, dysentery, and typhoid, poor hygiene practices due to a lack of awareness and infrastructure, and environmental degradation and climate change that affects water availability. Rotary clubs have played a significant role in WASH programs by providing finance, coordination, and implementation of projects in rural and underprivileged communities. NGOs such as WHO, WaterAid, UNICEF, and community-based organizations also help with WASH programs in Ogun State. Political office-holders have also initiated a number of WASH initiatives, including community water supply projects and sanitation infrastructure development across Ogun State’s twenty local government areas. Government agencies and departments are also striving to enhance access and sanitation.⁶⁴

Some strategies for ensuring the sustainability of WASH programs in Ogun State include involving local communities in project planning, implementation, and maintenance, training community members in basic water and sanitation management, and promoting hygiene education through community workshops and awareness campaigns. Rotary clubs should work closely with state and local governments to guarantee policy support and resource allocation. They should also improve the ability of local water and sanitation departments to manage and maintain infrastructure. They should create long-term funding strategies to cover the entire lifecycle of WASH projects and look for funding from sources other than the present ones.⁶⁵ In order to strengthen future initiatives in Ogun State’s vulnerable communities, Rotary clubs should embrace feedback mechanisms from community leaders and put in place monitoring and evaluation methods to measure the efficacy and sustainability of their WASH projects.⁶⁶

Based on the aforementioned strategies, WASH programs in Ogun State have significant potential for expansion to more vulnerable communities. As awareness of the importance of WASH program increases, more sponsors are likely to invest in long-term solutions. Water purification technology advancements, such as solar-powered water pumps, rainwater collection systems, and low-cost filtration units, help to ensure the sustainability of WASH programs.⁶⁷ Water quality monitoring, maintenance tracking, and real-time community engagement can all be accomplished using digital tools and mobile applications. Climate change is predicted to exacerbate water scarcity and flooding, necessitating climate-resilient WASH infrastructure. Rainwater harvesting, water storage systems, and flood-resistant sanitation facilities are examples of adaptive methods that assist communities in responding to changing environmental conditions.⁶⁸ WASH programs can be combined with other development projects like health, education, conflict resolution, and economic development to produce a more comprehensive approach to rural development. Collaboration with schools, health centers, and local investors can help WASH projects have a greater impact and remain sustainable.⁶⁹

Conclusion

It is established in this study that WASH programs are crucial for improving health outcomes and reducing mortality rates, promoting economic development through better health and education, and strengthening resilience to environmental and health crises. Rotary clubs have launched many WASH intervention programs in communities in Ogun State that are vulnerable to water scarcity, polluted water sources, and inadequate sanitation facilities. The clubs’ efforts to provide access to clean water, proper sanitation, and good hygiene have resulted in the construction of a new borehole system with treated water, the repair of some moribund borehole facilities with treated water, the construction and renovation of toilet facilities, the provision of washing stations, water tanks, refuse baskets, waste bins in markets, and incinerators for use by pupils/students, and the clearing of refuse dump sites. These projects are carried out in both urban and rural communities, public schools, and market places to benefit everyone in the community by preventing disease and improving their health and well-being. However, despite the challenges that these clubs face, such as funding constraints, insufficient government support and policy frameworks, limited community awareness and participation, poor maintenance culture, and logistical challenges, the sustainability of WASH programs in Ogun State’s communities is essential given their potential to significantly improve the health, well-being, and resilience of vulnerable populations. The study concludes that Rotary clubs have made significant contributions to improving public health in vulnerable communities in Ogun State through their WASH intervention programs, which have the prospects to transform the lives of millions of Ogun State residents while also contributing to the larger goals of public health, well-being, and sustainable development.

Notes and References

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3.      Olalekan John Okesanya et al., “Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene (WASH) Practices in Africa: Exploring the Effects on Public Health and Sustainable Development Plans,” Tropical Medicine and Health 52, no. 68 (2024): 2, https://doi.org/10.1186/s41182-024-00614-3.

4.      Kent State University, “A look at Public Health Interventions,” (2018). https://onlinedegrees.kent.edu/college-of-public-health/community/public-health-interventions.

5.      R. L. Goldsteen, K. Goldsteen, T. Dwelle, and T. L. Dwelle, Introduction to Public Health: Promises and Practice, (Springer Publishing Company, 2014).

6.      Guy Hutton, and Claire Chase, “Chapter 9: Water Supply, Sanitation, and Hygiene,” In Disease Control Priorities: Injury Prevention and Environmental Health, ed., Charles N. Mock et al., 171, (International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/The World Bank, 2017).

7.      United Nations, “Goal 6: Ensure Access to Water and Sanitation for All,” https://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/water-and-sanitation/; Debajyoti Bosea et al., “Overcoming Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene Challenges in Critical Regions of the Global Community,” Water-Energy Nexus 7 (2024): 277–296, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wen.2024.11.003; Okesanya et al., “Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene (WASH) Practices in Africa,” 1–9; Surekha Kishore et al., “Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene: A Global Imperative for Health,” Indian Journal of Community Health 35, no. 3 (July–September 2023): 367–371, https://doi.org/10.47203/IJCH.2023.v35i03.022; D. O. Olukanni, D. O. Iyiola, and C. O. Esu, “Water, Sanitation and Hygiene Practices in Ogun State: Impacts and Implications for Post-COVID-19 Era,” IOP Conf. Series: Materials Science and Engineering 1036 (2021): 1–15, https://doi.org/10.1088/1757-899X/1036/1/01200; Guy Hutton, and Claire Chase, “Water Supply, Sanitation, and Hygiene,” 171–198; Megersa Olumana Dinka, “Chapter 10: Safe Drinking Water: Concepts, Benefits, Principles and Standards,” (2016): 164–182, http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.71352.

8.      Surekha Kishore et al., “Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene: A Global Imperative for Health,” 367.

9.      World Health Organization (WHO), “Water, Sanitation and Hygiene (WASH),” https://www.who.int/health-topics/water-sanitation-and-hygiene-WASHtab=tab_1.

10.  Megersa Olumana Dinka, “Safe Drinking Water: Concepts, Benefits, Principles and Standards,” 164.

11.  Guy Hutton, and Claire Chase, “Water Supply, Sanitation, and Hygiene,” 171.

12.  UNICEF, “Water, Sanitation and Hygiene (WASH): Safe Water and Good Hygiene keep Children alive,” https://www.unicef.org/water-sanitation-and-hygiene-WASH.

13.  UNICEF, “Water, Sanitation and Hygiene (WASH): Safe Water and Good Hygiene keep Children alive.”

14.  United Nations, “Ensure Access to Water and Sanitation for All.”

15.  Okesanya et al., “Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene (WASH) Practices in Africa,” 2.

16.  World Health Organization (WHO), “Mortality Rate attributed to Exposure to Unsafe WASH Services (per 100,000 Population) (SDG 3.9.2),” https://www.who.int/data/gho/data/indicators/indicator-​details/GHO/mortality-​rateattributed-​to-​exposure-​to-​unsafe-​WASH-​services-​(per-​100-​000-​population)-​(sdg-3-​9-2).

17.  Surekha Kishore et al., “Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene: A Global Imperative for Health,” 369.

18.  Guy Hutton, and Claire Chase, “Chapter 9: Water Supply, Sanitation, and Hygiene,” 171.

19.  Bosea et al., “Overcoming Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene Challenges,” 278.

20.  United Nations General Assembly, “Seventy-Sixth Session Agenda item 74 Promotion and Protection of Human Rights: Resolution adopted by the General Assembly on 16 December 2021,” (United Nations General Assembly, 7 January 2022).

21.  United Nations, “Goal 6: Ensure Access to Water and Sanitation for All.”

22.  United Nations, “Goal 6: Ensure Access to Water and Sanitation for All.”

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24.  Mina Hosseinpourtehrani, Thayaparan Gajendran, Kim Maund, and Michael Sing, “Preconditions, Processes and Structures: Interorganisational Collaboration in the Provision of post-Disaster Water, Sanitation and Hygiene (WASH) Services,” International Journal of Disaster Risk Reduction 80, no. 1 (2022): 103177, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijdrr.2022.103177.

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26.  Rotary District 6270, “Transforming Lives: Rotary’s Impact on Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene (WASH) Programs,” https://www.rotary6270.org/stories/transforming-lives-rotary-s-impact-on-water-sanitation-and-hygiene-(WASH)-programs.

27.  Rotary District 6270, “Rotary’s Impact on Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene (WASH) Programs.”

28.  Ifeoma Okeke-Korieocha, “Rotary Club harps on disease control with infrastructure donation in school, others,” April 28, 2023, https://businessday.ng/news/article/rotary-club-harps-on-disease-control-with-infrastructure-donation-in-school-others/.

29.  B. L. Berg, and H. Lune, Qualitative Research Methods for the Social Sciences (8th Edition), (Pearson: Upper Saddle River, 2012, 305).

30.  Britannica Editors, “Ogun State, Nigeria,” https://www.britannica.com/place/Ogun-state-Nigeria.

31.  Interviews with different Rotarians between 2019 and 2020.

32.  Isaac Olufadewa et al., “Climate, Health, and Living Condition Crises in the expanding Informal Settlements and Slums of South-West Nigeria: A Case Report of Ogun and Oyo States,” Journal of Global Health (JOGH) 15, no. 03031 (June 2025): 1–10, https://doi.org.10.7189/jogh.15.03031.

33.  Sodiq Ojuroungbe, “Dying by the Dozens: Ogun communities’ Perilous Quest for Clean Water across Benin Republic’s Borders,” April 14, 2024, https://punchng.com/dying-by-the-dozens-ogun-communities-perilous-quest-for-clean-water-across-benin-republics-borders/.

34.  Ojuroungbe, “Dying by the Dozens: Ogun communities’ Perilous Quest for Clean Water.”

35.  Oral Interview with Rotarian Oba (Dr.) Olubayo Adesola Windapo, Male, 58 years old, at the Alara of Ala Kingdom Palace, on December 5, 2019.

36.  Oral Interview with Rotarian Yomi Adewunmi, Male, 72 years old, at his residence in Gbagada, Lagos, on January 5, 2020.

37.  Oral Interview with Rotarian (Dr.) Lukman Olusesi, Male, 51 years old, at Rotary Club Ijebu-Ode on January 16, 2019.

38.  Oral Interview with Rotarian Tpl. Olukunle Olubunmi Adeleye, Male, 45 years old, at RC Obantoko, Abeokuta on November 22, 2019.

39.  Oral Interview with Rotarian Olasunkanmi Odunsi, Male, 43 years old, at Rotary Club of Ijebu Ife Sunrise, Ijebu-Ife on November 20, 2019.

40.  Oral Interview with Rotarian Adefunke Ekime, female, 56 years old, at her office in Ijagun, Ijebu-Ode on November 28, 2019.

41.  Telephone Interview with Rotarian Wole Kukoyi, Male, 64 years old, on April 2, 2020.

42.  Oral Interview with Rotarian Olasunkanmi Odunsi, 2020.

43.  Oral Interview with Rotarian Tpl. Olukunle Olubunmi Adeleye, 2020.

44.  Oral Interview with Rotarian Olumide Majekodunmi, Male, 40+ years old, at Rotary Club Elega Abeokuta on April 27, 2020.

45.  Oral Interview with Rotarian Olayinka Adenuga, Male, 50+ years old, at Rotary Club of Abeokuta Metro Ibara, Abeokuta on February 10, 2020.

46.  Oral Interview with Rotarian Ola-Davies Olatunji, Male, 49 years old, at RC Abeokuta Metro on April 28, 2020.

47.  Oral Interview with Rotarian Ola-Davies Olatunji, 2020.

48.  Oral Interview with Rotarian Chief Omolara Adenike Akintade, Female, 61 years old, on April 25, 2020.

49.  Telephone Interview with Rotarian Sowunmi, Male, 58 years old on April 9, 2020.

50.  Telephone Interview with Rotarian Yomi Whyte, Male, 60 years old on April 29, 2020.

51.  Oral Interview with Rotarian Tpl. Olukunle Olubunmi Adeleye, 2019; Telephone Interview with Rotarian Prof. Akinola K. Akinlabi, Male, 50+ years old on April 29, 2020.

52.  Oral Interview with Rotarian Lt. Shina Adepoju, Male, 58years old, at OOPL Abeokuta on December 14, 2019.

53.  Interviews with different Rotarians between 2019 and 2020.

54.  Interviews with different Rotarians between 2019 and 2020.

55.  Interviews with different Rotarians between 2019 and 2020.

56.  Interviews with different Rotarians between 2019 and 2020.

57.  Interviews with different Rotarians between 2019 and 2020.

58.  Interviews with different Rotarians and community leaders between 2019 and 2020.

59.  Interviews with different Rotarians and community leaders between 2019 and 2020.

60.  Interviews with different Rotarians and community leaders between 2019 and 2020.

61.  Interviews with different Rotarians between 2019 and 2020.

62.  Interviews with different Rotarians between 2019 and 2020.

63.  Interviews with different Rotarians between 2019 and 2020.

64.  Oral Interview with Dr. Salimat Sanni, Female, 38years old, at Ogun State PHCDB, Oke-Mosan, Abeokuta, on December 13, 2018.

65.  Interviews with different Rotarians and community leaders between 2019 and 2020.

66.  Oral Interview with Rotarian Adetonwa, msle, 58 years old, at Ogun State Primary Healthcare Development Board (PHCDB), Oke-Mosan Abeokuta, on February 5, 2020.

67.  Oral Interview with Mrs. Motunrayo Sobande, female, 50+ years old, at Oke Oyinbo Primary Healthcare Centre, Ijebu-Ode, on November 27, 2019; Oral Interview with Mrs. S.B. Abiola-Bakre, female, 55 years old, at Ijebu-Ode Local Government Secretariat, on November 27, 2019.

68.  Oral Interview with Rotarian (Dr.) Lukman Olusesi, January 16, 2019; Nurse T. O. Peters, female, 55 years old, at Ijebu-Ode Local Government Secretariat, on November 27, 2019.

69.  Telephone Interview with Rotarian (Dr.) Abdulrahman Olatunji Funsho, male, 70+ years old, on April 30, 2020.