By
1Babangida
Yusuf & 2Ohiani Johnson
Onoruoiza
1Department of English and Literature, Federal University Gusau, Zamfara
State, Nigeria
2Federal College of Education, Okene, Kogi State, Nigeria
Corresponding author’s email and phone No: babangidayusuf@fugusau.edu.ng, 08161600411
Abstract
This
study examines generational differences in slang usage among students of
selected Nigerian universities, namely the University of Lagos, Obafemi Awolowo
University, Ahmadu Bello University, University of Jos, University of Nigeria
Nsukka, University of Maiduguri, Bayero University Kano and the University of
Port Harcourt. This study is anchored in Variationist Sociolinguistics and the research
investigates how age as a social variable shapes the creation, interpretation and
use of slang among two generational cohorts: Generation Y (born 1981–1996) and
Generation Z (born 1997–2012). Data were generated through semi-structured
interviews and naturalistic observation of offline campus interactions and
online discourse involving 320 undergraduate and postgraduate students. The
findings show that even though the two generations use slang as a resource for
social bonding and identity construction, clear differences exist in terms of
lexical innovation, semantic flexibility and digital mediation. Generation Z
demonstrates a higher propensity for internet-driven slang, rapid lexical
turnover and multimodal expression, whereas Generation Y exhibits more stable,
context-bound usage rooted in earlier campus and pre-digital communicative
practices. These patterns indicate that slang functions as a socially
meaningful linguistic variable to show generational identity, technological
exposure and communicative norms within Nigerian university spaces. The study
contributes to sociolinguistic research on age-graded variation by documenting
contemporary Nigerian university slang as an index of ongoing linguistic
change.
Keywords: Digital
discourse, Linguistic innovation, Youth identity, Communicative culture, Social
media Interaction
Introduction
Language is a social tool that is in a constant
process of changing to fit new realities, identities and communicative
situations. Slang is one of the most vibrant manifestations of such evolution and
it is a kind of linguistic innovation reflecting the social identity of
Americans and the use of comma as a part of the belonging. Slang is known to
emerge among youth groups as an inclusion and exclusion strategy, solidarity
and opposition to regular language conventions (Eble, 2020). It is also both
informal and symbolic in its use to denote the worldview of the speaker, humour
and attitude to the contemporary issues (Coleman, 2021). In linguistic
traditions, slang was traditionally viewed as a nonstandard or deviant language
but modern sociolinguistics acknowledges that it forms a place of linguistic
creativity and cultural identity (Tagliamonte, 2016). In Nigeria, as in most
multilingual cultures, slang is an intersection of English, Pidgin and native
language forming hybrid forms of language which mirror urbanisation, online
interaction and youth culture (Odebode, 2021). The spread of digital
communication tools like Twitter, Tik Tok, Instagram and WhatsApp- have caused
this linguistic creativity to grow even more enabling slang to run quickly
across social, and generational lines (Crystal, 2022). The fast technological
revolution of the 21 st century has brought about novel communicative practices
particularly in students of universities and colleges whose interaction is both
digital and physical. These students represent various generations, in
particular, Generation Y (Millennials) and Generation Z, the socialisation
patterns of which are quite different. The Generation Y, born between 1981 and
1996, experienced the shift of analogue to digital communication, and the
Generation Z, born since 1997, lived in an entirely digitalised Allan and Burridge,
2009environment (Prensky, 2020). Their language preferences, particularly
informal ones, therefore, demonstrate different levels of digital fluency,
lexical creativity and flexibility towards new forms of communication (Nguyen
and Ward, 2023).
Although the attempts to investigate slang in specific social contexts
have been undertaken in Nigeria before (Asiru and Ogutu, 2018; Nwokoji, 2024),
there is a lack of systematic research on the use of slang and its meaning as
perceived by various generations in academic settings. These generational
differences are essential to understand because students of universities do not
just receive the linguistic trends but also become creators and communicators
of linguistic tendencies.
Statement of the problem
It
has been proved by many researchers, including Moshood (2020), Odeh et al.
(2020), Onebunne and Akujobi (2021), Evbayiro (2022), Egbo (2022) and Eleshin
(2022) that slang is widely used by the younger generation and students in
particular in Nigeria. According to Moshood (2020), slangy expressions are frequent
and elusive in the youths and the comprehension of slangy expressions may lead
to the understanding of the language of crime or crime potential in the youths.
Odeh et al. (2020) find that the prevalence of slang has implications on the
academic performance of the students and in their conversational patterns and
suggested a balance between the use of slang and the standard language use to
communicate. Although the Nigerian language has become more visible, the use of
slang has remained largely unrecognised by most sociolinguistic studies, which
have embraced it as a local or youth culture. Yet, slang codes generational
differences, not only based on age, but on collective historical experience,
technological adjustment and worldview. There is a noticeable gap in the
research of language variation and intergenerational communication that lacks
the presence of thorough qualitative research to examine the use of slang in
the same social space by Generation Y and Generation Z. This research thus
explores the ways these two generations create and define the meaning of slang
in Nigerian university environments in a bid to unravel the socio-cultural and
technological contexts that support the linguistic preferences of the students.
Aim and Objectives
The
aim of this research is to explore the generational differences in slang usage
between Generation
Y (Millennials) and Generation Z (Digital Natives) Nigerian university students.
The objectives are to:
i.
identity the use of slangy expressions by university students across
generational lines;
ii.
examine
the social, cultural, and digital motivations influencing slang formation and
usage;
iii.
analyse how generation Y and generation Z differ in the functions,
meanings, and context of their slang expressions; and
iv.
discuss how slang contributes
to identity formation, group belonging, and linguistic change in contemporary
Nigerian society.
Significance of
the Study
This
paper adds to the accumulating literature on sociolinguistic studies on
language variation and generational identity by observing how the slang depicts
the cultural and technological change in Nigeria. Its results will assist
linguists, teachers and communication theorists to learn more about the connection
between linguistic innovation and generational shift. In addition to the
theoretical implications, the study also provides practical information
concerning intercultural communication, digital literacy and identity formation
among the youth. The study examines the generational variations in the use of
slang by Nigerian university students by placing it in the larger framework of
variationist sociolinguistics. In its turn, language variation and generational
identity are interconnected. The framework presented by Labov is especially
applicable to the research of the intergenerational language use, since age is
one of the most constant variables of the linguistic variation. The language
differences by age, not only represent the chronological differences, but also
the historical experience, socialisation patterns, and experience of
technological change (Eckert, 2019). Every generation is acculturated into a
certain linguistic setting predetermined by its cultural and communication
technologies. An example is that Generation Y formed the language conventions
prior to the widespread use of digital communication and Generation Z has been
subjected to virtual communication since adolescence (Nguyen and Ward, 2023).
Variationist studies illustrate how young speakers are the ones who initiate
linguistic change frequently being agents of change in speech communities
(Tagliamonte, 2016). With time, certain of these innovative forms can turn
conventionalised, and affect older generations or becoming standard. In this
dynamic, slang serves as a distinctly telling location of generational
opposition since it sums up imaginative, identity work, and social commentary.
Variationist model offers a very good model to study the functioning of slang
as a socially relevant variable in a generational boundary. This paper
qualitatively uses the framework to examine the use of slang by Nigerian
university students of Generation Y and Generation Z to identify themselves,
align with others socially, and digitally.
i.
The
Linguistic Variation is Systematic: Variationist sociolinguistics is based on
the idea that language variation is not random but is mainly structured
(Drummond and Schleef, 2016). By studying a range of linguistic forms in a
range of situations and backgrounds, researchers can make probabilistic
predictions concerning what linguistic variation will be used. Variations in
the use of slang across the generations are not random but can be explained by
the fact that there are certain communicative norms, exposure and values shared
by each generation.
ii.
Influence
of Social Factors:
Age, gender, belonging to ethnic communities and socioeconomic status are the
socioeconomic factors which significantly influence linguistic variation
(Sundgren, 2009). Contrary to young speakers, old speakers can exhibit a
different language pattern, and therefore it can vary based on the formality of
the situation. In addition, social meaning that is assigned to some forms of
language can shape the development and perception of the language. Language is
identity of the society, people employ linguistic forms, such as slang, to
identify themselves and distinguish themselves among others.
iii.
Language
Contact and Change:
Language interaction is one of the major factors that affect linguistic
diversity and change in multilingual cultures. Since the multilingual cultures
involve more social aspects as well as interindividual differences compared to
the monolingual cultures, researchers investigate the relationship between 35
social and linguistic factors in order to define the outcomes of the language
contact. As Aikhenvald and Maitz (2021) would state:
a
wide range of sociolinguistic parameters impact the
outcomes
of language contact in different ways. New
language
varieties emerge under new circumstances. Some
of
these varieties may be typical of young and innovative
speakers;
others may be a feature of a diasporic community.
Some
of those will survive the test of time and eventually
evolve
into established linguistic repertoires (69).
This method aids in comprehending
how and when language change happens from interaction (Hilmisdóttir and
Peterson, 2023; Aikhenvald and Maitz, 2021). Further, change emerges from
interaction. Contact between generations in university settings
fosters diffusion, adaptation, and recontextualisation of slang expressions.
Theoretical Framework
The
choice of Variationist Sociolinguistics aligns with the study’s aim of bridging
linguistic description and social interpretation by integrating attention to
both form and meaning, unlike purely structural approaches that emphasise form
alone or ethnographic approaches that prioritise meaning. This perspective
enables the examination of how linguistic behaviour indexes social difference
while capturing the fluidity of generational identity in contemporary
communication. In line with recent sociolinguistic scholarship that reconceptualises
variation as part of broader semiotic repertoires including digital expressions
such as emojis, acronyms and memes (Rymes, 2022) the framework allows Nigerian
university slang to be situated within ongoing global linguistic change while
remaining sensitive to local sociocultural contexts. Drawing on Labov’s (1972)
foundational work and later extensions by Eckert (2019) and Tagliamonte (2016),
the study conceptualises slang usage as shaped by the interaction of social
identity (generation and peer networks), contextual domain (offline versus
online interaction) and linguistic creativity (semantic innovation and
borrowing). By foregrounding these interacting variables, the variationist
framework provides an appropriate theoretical lens for achieving the aim of
this study, which is to explore generational differences in slang usage among
Nigerian university students.
Methodology
Research Design
This
study adopted a qualitative descriptive research design to explore generational
differences in slang usage among Nigerian university students. The design is
suitable for examining language as social practice, as it allows for an
in-depth interpretation of meanings, motivations and contextual use of slang
within natural communicative settings. The qualitative approach enables a
nuanced understanding of how slang functions as a marker of generational
identity, creativity and social alignment within university environments
(Creswell & Poth, 2023).
Study Area and Population
The study
was conducted across eight selected Nigerian universities representing the
country’s geopolitical diversity: University of Lagos, Obafemi Awolowo
University, Ahmadu Bello University, University of Jos, University of Nigeria
Nsukka, University of Maiduguri, Bayero University Kano and the University of
Port Harcourt. These institutions were selected to capture linguistic variation
across regional, cultural and institutional contexts. Universities provide
fertile grounds for linguistic innovation, as students from diverse linguistic
and social backgrounds interact regularly in both physical and digital spaces.
The
population comprised undergraduate and postgraduate students belonging to two
generational cohorts:
- Generation
Y (Millennials):
postgraduate students aged 28–40 years
- Generation
Z:
undergraduate students aged 18–27 years
Sampling
Technique and Sample Size
A total
of 320 participants were selected using purposive and snowball sampling
techniques. Purposive sampling ensured the inclusion of participants who were
actively engaged in campus-based and online interactions where slang usage is
prominent. Snowball sampling further facilitated access to peer networks within
each university. Care was taken to achieve a balance in terms of gender,
academic discipline and institutional type. This sampling strategy allowed for
rich, relevant data on generational slang practices rather than statistical
generalisation.
Data
Collection Instruments
Data were
collected using two primary instruments:
- Semi-structured interviews:
Each participant participated in an interview lasting approximately 30–45 minutes. The interviews explored commonly used slang expressions, their meanings, contexts of use, and participants’ perceptions of generational differences in slang. Open-ended questions allowed respondents to reflect on their linguistic creativity, digital influences, and identity expression. - Naturalistic observation and
discourse records:
The researcher observed informal interactions in campus spaces such as lecture corridors, cafeterias, hostels, and recreational areas. In addition, publicly accessible student interactions on WhatsApp groups and Twitter (X) related to campus life were examined. These observations provided authentic examples of slang usage in both offline and online contexts.
Data
Analysis
Data
analysis was guided by William Labov’s Variationist Sociolinguistic framework,
which conceptualises linguistic variation as systematic and socially
conditioned. Slang expressions were analysed as linguistic variables influenced
by age, interactional context and communicative domain. This framework enabled
the interpretation of generational differences not as random variation but as
patterned linguistic behaviour linked to social identity.
In
addition, a thematic interpretive approach was employed following Braun and
Clarke’s (2021) six-phase model. The analysis involved familiarisation with the
data, initial coding, theme development, theme review, definition and
interpretation. Themes emerged inductively and focused on the functions of
slang, modes of expression, generational creativity and digital mediation. To
enhance credibility, data triangulation was achieved by comparing interview responses
with observational data and member checks were conducted to confirm the
accuracy of interpretations.
Ethical
Considerations
Ethical
principles of confidentiality and informed consent were strictly observed.
Participants were informed about the purpose of the study, the voluntary nature
of participation, and their right to withdraw at any stage. Consent was obtained
prior to data collection and no personal identifiers were recorded. All data
were treated confidentially and used solely for academic purposes in line with
standard ethical guidelines for social research (Surmiak, 2020).
Discussions
The
thematic analysis revealed four interrelated themes that explain how slang
reflects generational differences in identity construction, creativity and
digitally mediated interaction among students of selected Nigerian
universities. Drawing on data from institutions across different geopolitical
zones, the themes highlight how campus environments intersect with age to shape
slang usage. The four themes are:
- Slang as a Marker of
Identity and Belonging
- Generational Creativity and
Lexical Innovation
- Digital Mediation and
Linguistic Diffusion
- Intergenerational Perception
and Linguistic Attitudes
Each
theme is illustrated with representative excerpts from students and interpreted
within the framework of Variationist Sociolinguistics (Labov 1972, 2001) and
age-graded language change (Eckert 2019; Tagliamonte 2016).
Slang as
a Marker of Identity and Belonging
Across
the selected universities, slang functioned as a strong marker of in-group
identity and campus belonging for both generational cohorts. Students deployed
slang to index peer affiliation, signal shared experiences and distinguish
insiders from outsiders within their university communities. This finding
supports Labov’s (1972) view that linguistic variables are social resources for
constructing identity and solidarity.
For
example, “sapa” (financial hardship) was widely used by Generation Z
students across institutions, regardless of region. Expressions such as “sapa
don hold me” or “this sapa no be here” humorously conveyed financial
difficulty associated with student life. One undergraduate noted:
“When I
say ‘omo, sapa don hold me,’ everybody understands, whether you’re in this
school or another one.”
The expression fostered immediate solidarity grounded in shared economic
realities of university students nationwide.
Similarly,
“we move” (resilience) appeared across campuses as a collective coping
expression. While both generations used it, Generation Z students frequently
employed it ironically in online interactions linked to academic stress. A
21-year-old respondent explained:
“After
any setback, especially school wahala, we just say ‘we move’.”
The phrase encoded emotional resilience common to student culture.
The
long-standing Nigerian English slang “no wahala” was also shared across
generations and universities. A Generation Y postgraduate remarked:
“We used
‘no wahala’ during our own campus days, but students now use it more
playfully.”
Its persistence reflects continuity within Nigerian campus sociolinguistic
practices.
Another
marker of identity was “gbas gbos” (conflict or argument). While older
students across universities associated it with physical confrontation,
Generation Z reinterpreted it as humorous verbal exchange, especially online.
This semantic shift illustrates campus-based innovation influenced by digital
discourse.
Expressions
such as “cruise” (playfulness) further reinforced generational identity.
Among Generation Z students in the sampled universities, “catching cruise”
signified unseriousness or ironic engagement within peer interactions. Overall,
slang operated as a social password that indexed belonging within university
spaces. However, while Generation Y used slang in physical campus settings such
as lecture halls and hostels, Generation Z extended identity signalling into
digital platforms, underscoring how communicative domains shape linguistic
identity (Rymes 2022).
Generational
Creativity and Lexical Innovation
A clear
distinction emerged between the cohorts in their approaches to slang creation
and adaptation within university environments. Generation Z students across the
selected universities demonstrated rapid lexical innovation, often driven by
memes, code-switching and online trends. Expressions such as “no gree for
anybody,” “sapa,” “vibe check,” and “no cap” dominated their
linguistic repertoire.
For
instance, “no gree for anybody” functioned as an assertive slogan among
Gen Z students. One participant explained:
“It
started online, but now students say it during arguments or discussions in
school.”
The phrase illustrates how digital discourse migrates into campus speech.
Another
example is “it’s giving”, adopted from global youth culture and used
evaluatively among students. This reflects exposure to transnational linguistic
flows within Nigerian universities.
The
expression “dey play” (mockery) also featured prominently in Gen Z
slang, often used sarcastically in peer conversations. Meanwhile, “vibe”
was used by both generations, though with different semantic scopes. Generation
Y used it descriptively, while Generation Z refunctionalised it as both noun
and adjective, demonstrating semantic flexibility.
Conversely,
Generation Y students retained earlier campus slang such as “hammer”
(financial success). A respondent recalled:
“When we
said ‘I don hammer,’ it was about real hustle.”
This contrasts with Generation Z’s preference for symbolic success terms such
as “soft life.”
These
patterns align with Tagliamonte’s (2016) concept of generational layering,
where slang cycles through youth cohorts. Generation Z’s slang shows high
turnover and semantic elasticity, while Generation Y’s reflects stability
shaped by earlier campus experiences.
Digital
Mediation and Linguistic Diffusion
Digital
platforms emerged as crucial mediators of slang diffusion across the selected
universities. For Generation Z, social media spaces such as TikTok, Twitter and
WhatsApp served as primary sites for slang creation and circulation. A student
observed:
“Once
something trends online, it enters how we talk in school.”
Expressions
like “wahala be like bicycle,” “we outside,” and “soft life”
spread rapidly through viral repetition, illustrating network-based diffusion.
The term “omo,” once a regional address form, now functions as a
discourse marker across campuses, highlighting digital-driven linguistic
hybridisation.
While
Generation Y students relied more on face-to-face interaction during their
university years, many reported adopting Gen Z slang through digital exposure.
This supports the variationist view that contact across social networks
encourages linguistic accommodation (Drummond & Schleef 2016).
Intergenerational
Perception and Linguistic Attitudes
The final
theme examines how students across generations evaluate each other’s slang
within university contexts. Generation Z viewed older slang as outdated but
respectable, while Generation Y often perceived newer slang as overly foreign
or unserious.
For
example, “no gree for anybody” was interpreted by Gen Z as empowerment
but by Gen Y as confrontational. Similarly, “sapa” was humorous for
younger students but trivialising to older ones. Expressions like “catch
cruise” and “wahala” further revealed contrasting ideological
evaluations of language use.
These
attitudes demonstrate age-graded linguistic ideology (Eckert 2019), reinforcing
generational boundaries while allowing selective convergence when slang gains
wide cultural relevance. Shared expressions such as “no wahala” and “gbas
gbos” show that intergenerational diffusion does occur within Nigerian
universities.
Overall,
the findings portray slang as a reflection of generational consciousness shaped
by campus life, digital culture, and Nigeria’s evolving sociolinguistic
landscape. Slang usage among students of selected Nigerian universities is
therefore not linguistic decline but a dynamic process of linguistic adaptation
and creativity.
Conclusion
This study examined
generational differences in slang usage among Nigerian university students,
highlighting how linguistic practices reflect social identity, technological
adaptation and evolving communicative culture. Grounded in Variationist
Sociolinguistics, the findings show that slang functions as more than playful
language; it is a socially meaningful variable indexing generational belonging
and digital participation.
Generation Y and
Generation Z value slang as a mode of expression, their lexical choices, usage
contexts and underlying ideologies differ. Generation Y employs slang
contextually, often nostalgically, rooted in interpersonal experiences and
pre-digital campus life. In contrast, Generation Z treats slang as an integral
part of everyday discourse, shaped by digital culture, humour, and immediacy.
These differences
demonstrate that language change is driven by social and technological
transformations. Age and digital exposure emerge as key variables influencing
the creation, spread, and interpretation of slang in university settings,
supporting Labov’s (1972, 2001) view that linguistic variation follows
systematic social patterns.
Moreover, slang is
affirmed as a legitimate form of linguistic innovation and cultural
documentation. Expressions such as “sapa,” “we move,” “dey play,” and “no
gree for anybody” reflect creativity while capturing the socio-economic,
emotional, and psychological realities of Nigerian youth. Through humour,
resilience, irony and shared experience, slang functions as a mirror of
generational consciousness.
The study concludes that
slang serves both communicative and symbolic roles, bridging linguistic
creativity with cultural commentary. Generational differences reveal not a
divide but a continuum of innovation, through which each cohort negotiates
identity, belonging and social meaning within Nigeria’s dynamic sociolinguistic
landscape.
Recommendations
a.
Linguistic Documentation and Research
The study revealed that slang among Nigerian university students is highly
creative, dynamic, and generationally differentiated. Given its rapid
evolution, systematic documentation is crucial to preserve it as part of
Nigeria’s linguistic heritage. Institutions and researchers should develop
digital corpora or lexicographic databases capturing emerging slang terms,
meanings, and contexts of use. This ensures that informal linguistic innovation
is recognised alongside standard varieties and provides a reliable reference
for future sociolinguistic studies.
b.
Intergenerational Communication
Findings indicated that slang mediates relationships between students, peers,
and lecturers, sometimes creating misunderstandings between generations. To
foster better understanding, universities can encourage intergenerational
dialogue on linguistic change, recognising younger speakers’ creativity while
maintaining academic standards. Such engagement can reduce linguistic prejudice
and enhance communication across age groups.
c. Media
and Digital Literacy
The study showed that digital platforms, especially TikTok, WhatsApp, and
Instagram, play a central role in the diffusion and transformation of slang.
Students’ online linguistic practices reflect both humour and social identity.
Therefore, integrating digital literacy programs into curricula can help
students critically engage with language in online spaces, promoting
responsible and context-sensitive communication in academic and professional
settings.
Future
Research Directions
The
findings suggest several avenues for further study:
- Longitudinal and
Mixed-Methods Studies – Tracking slang over time would provide
insight into its evolution, adoption, and potential stabilization within
different cohorts.
- Comparative Cross-Cultural
Research –
Investigating Nigerian slang alongside other African or global youth
varieties could reveal how globalisation and digital culture influence
local linguistic creativity.
- Social Identity and
Variation –
Future research could explore how gender, region, or socio-economic
background intersects with slang formation, enriching understanding of
language variation within social groups.
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This article is published in ALQALAM: A Journal of Language and Literary Studies, FUGUS, Volume 1, Issue 2 - June 2026
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