This article is published in AL-QALAM Journal of Languages and Literary Studies, Vol. 1, Issue 1, December 2025 (A Publication of the Department of English and Literature, Federal University Gusau, Zamfara State, Nigeria)
PATRIOTISM
AND RECONCILIATION IN JOHN RUSIMBI’S BY THE
TIME SHE RETURNED AND THE HYENA’S WEDDING: THE UNTOLD HORRORS OF GENOCIDE
By
Abdullahi
Dahiru Umar
Department
of English and Literature Federal University Gusau, Zamfara State, Nigeria
&
Musa
Ahmad Sani
Department
of Arts and Social Science Education, Faculty of Education, Kaduna State
University, Nigeria
Corresponding
Author’s Email and Phone No.: dumar@fugusau.edu,ng
Abstract
This article explores John Rusimbi's novels and
their role in promoting national reconciliation and patriotism in Rwanda. As a
pioneering Rwandan novelist writing in English, Rusimbi's works reflect the
country's post-colonial history and conditions. His novels, By the Time She
Returned and The Hyena's Wedding, are analysed for their value as
pedagogical texts, providing insight into themes such as exile, genocide, and
reconstruction. The article argues that these novels should be included in
school curricula to educate Rwandan children about their country's history and
promote national unity. The study adopts a social history approach, viewing
literature as a product of human experience that can shape society. An
Afrocentric approach is also employed, affirming African cultural values and
resisting colonialism and neocolonialism. The article stresses the value of
written literature in Rwanda and its capacity to foster patriotism and national
healing by analysing Rusimbi's works of literature.
Keywords: Sociopolitical; Afrocentric, pedagogical
texts, school curricula; patriotism; national reconciliation.
Background to the Study
From an Afrocentric perspective, the study of patriotism and
reconciliation in John Rusimbi's works, "By the Time She Returned"
and "The Hyena's Wedding: The Untold Horrors of Genocide," offers a
unique lens through which to examine the complexities of identity, community,
and nation-building in post-genocide Rwanda. Afrocentricity, as defined by
Molefi Kete Asante, emphasizes the importance of centering African culture,
history, and experiences in the narrative (Asante 2003). In Rusimbi's works,
this is reflected in the exploration of themes such as identity, community, and
resilience, which are deeply rooted in African cultural values.
Rusimbi's experiences as a Rwandan author and politician lend
authenticity to his narratives, providing a unique perspective on the
complexities of patriotism and reconciliation. His background as a headmaster,
member of the Ministry for Youth and Culture, and member of the Rwandan
parliament informs his writing, offering nuanced insights into the challenges
faced by Rwandans (Rusimbi). Through his works, Rusimbi seeks to promote
healing, unity, and understanding, reflecting the Afrocentric values of community
and collective well-being (Asante 2003).
The concept of Afrocentricity is built on the idea of
"centeredness," which refers to the ability of individuals and
communities to define themselves and their experiences on their own terms
(Asante 2003). In "The Hyena's Wedding," Rusimbi explores the
aftermath of the Rwandan genocide, highlighting the need for reconciliation and
healing. This emphasis on reconciliation reflects the Afrocentric principle of
seeking balance and harmony within the community. By centering African experiences
and voices, Rusimbi's narratives offer a unique perspective on the complexities
of identity, community, and nation-building.
Eventually, Rusimbi's works demonstrate the power of storytelling
in promoting patriotism, reconciliation, and healing. By examining his works
through the lens of Afrocentricity, this study aims to contribute to a deeper
understanding of the complexities of identity, community, and nation-building
in post-genocide Rwanda. As an Afrocentric approach would suggest, Rusimbi's
works emphasize the importance of self-definition and collective empowerment in
the face of adversity (Asante 2003).
Introduction
John Rusimbi
John Rusimbi's novels, By the Time She Returned (1998) and The
Hyena's Wedding: The Untold Horrors of Genocide (2008), have positioned him
as a trailblazing Rwandan novelist writing in English. The novel genre is
relatively rare in Rwanda's creative arts scene, with only a handful of writers
exploring this form in Kinyarwanda and French. Notably, François Xavier
Gasimba's novellas, Isiha Rusahuzi and Indege y’Ubumwe, have
garnered critical acclaim locally. Several Rwandan writers have successfully
published full-length novels in French, including Sehene Benjamin's Le Piège
Ethnique (The Ethnic Trap, 1999) and Le Feu sous la soutane (Fire
under the Cassock, 2005).
Rwandan literature has a diverse and rich history, with notable
writers contributing to various genres. According to Wikipedia, prominent
Rwandan writers include Amata Giramata, known for her poetry and activism, and
Edouard Gasarabwe, a novelist and folklorist. Other notable writers include
Immaculée Ilibagiza, known for her autobiographical and religious works, and
Benjamin Sehene, a novelist and non-fiction writer. The scarcity of novels in
Rwanda's literary landscape underscores the significance of Rusimbi's
contributions. His works not only explore themes of identity, community, and
resilience but also provide a unique perspective on Rwanda's tumultuous
history. Saverio Nayigiziki, an older-generation novelist, paved the way for
future generations with his novels Escapade rwandaise (Rwanda
Adventure,1950) and L’Optimiste (The Optimist, 1954).
Rusimbi's pioneering work in the English language adds a new dimension to
Rwanda's literary heritage. His novels offer a platform for exploring complex
themes and experiences, contributing to a deeper understanding of Rwanda's
history and culture.
John Rusimbi is a prominent figure in Rwandan education and
politics. He has served as the dean of Nyamata High School in Rwanda,
showcasing his commitment to shaping young minds. His involvement in the
Service for Youth and Culture further highlights his dedication to fostering
growth and development among Rwanda's youth. His experience extends beyond
education, as he has also been a part of the Rwandan parliament. This role has
likely given him a unique perspective on the country's governance. As a writer,
Rusimbi has penned several notable works, including By the Time She Returned
and The Hyena's Wedding: The Untold Horrors of Genocide.
The Hyena's Wedding, in
particular, sheds light on the atrocities committed during the Rwandan
genocide. Rusimbi's writing serves as a testament to the power of storytelling
in processing trauma and promoting healing. His work has contributed
significantly to the body of literature on the genocide and its impact on
Rwandan society. As a scholar and writer, Rusimbi's work has far-reaching
implications for understanding the complexities of Rwandan history and culture.
His contributions to the field serve as a foundation for further research and
exploration.
Theoretical Framework
The
pioneers of the sociological approach to literature include scholars like
Lucien Goldmann and Georg Lukacs. According to Goldmann, literature is a
reflection of the social structures and economic conditions of a particular
time and place (Goldmann 23). Lukacs also stresses the importance of
understanding the social and historical context in which a work of literature
was written (Lukacs 45). The sociological approach considers writing as a
product of the people's experiences and is usually written to educate society
on how it can be improved (Williams 12). This approach is helpful in analyzing
and evaluating works in terms of the social settings, history, and political
conditions under which the art was produced (Eagleton 78). Analysts adopting
this approach use descriptive and explanatory methods to attain a varied
understanding of the works under study (Macherey 34).
Summary of The Hyena's Wedding: The Untold Horrors of Genocide
The novel is set against the backdrop of the Rwandan genocide, a
period that left deep scars on the nation (Gourevitch 23). The story revolves
around Musonera, a survivor who has lost most of his family and is left to
navigate the challenges of rebuilding his life (Hatzfeld 45). Despite his
traumatic experiences, Musonera is determined to contribute to the healing
process by working as a local division leader, focusing on fostering an
environment of reconciliation (Prunier 78).
Musonera's role is fraught with challenges, as he faces deep-seated
animosity and painful memories (Reyntjens 123). His wife, Harriet, struggles to
understand his dedication to his work, which often takes him away from their
family (Burnet 90). As the odds pile up against him, Musonera grapples with the
complexity of issues that arise when a nation is trying to overcome a long
history of conflict.
Similarly, the text sheds light on the difficulties of
post-genocide recovery, where individuals and communities must confront their
painful pasts to move forward (Mamdani 156). Musonera's story serves as a
testament to the resilience of the Rwandan people and their efforts to rebuild
their lives and communities (Straus 112). Through Musonera's journey, the novel
explores themes of hope, forgiveness, and reconciliation in the face of
unimaginable tragedy (Kagame 234). The narrative highlights the importance of
understanding the past to build a more peaceful future (Vansina 200).
Synopsis of By
the Time She Returned
The Rwandan genocide and its aftermath brought immense suffering to
countless individuals, leaving deep scars that would take years to heal
(Gourevitch 23). The international community watched in horror as the crisis
unfolded, with many Rwandans forced to flee their homes and seek refuge in
other countries (Prunier 45). The narrative huts light on the experiences of
displaced persons, particularly through the story of Kaitesi and her brother,
who are forced to live in a refugee camp (Hatzfeld 78).
Also, the refugee camp setting serves as a backdrop for exploring
themes of desperation, corruption, and misery, which are unfortunately common
in many refugee situations around the world (Mamdani 123). The novel highlights
the struggles faced by refugees, including poverty, violence, and uncertainty
about their future (Burnet 90). By focusing on the personal story of Kaitesi
and her brother, the novel humanizes the refugee crisis, making it more
relatable and poignant.
Indeed, the refugee crisis depicted in the novel is not unique to
Rwanda; it is a global issue that affects millions of people worldwide
(Reyntjens 156). The novel serves as a powerful reminder of the need for
compassion, understanding, and action to address the root causes of
displacement and support those affected (Straus 112). Through its portrayal of
the refugee experience, the novel encourages readers to reflect on their own
responsibilities towards those in need and to consider the complexities of the
refugee crisis (Kagame 234). By sharing Kaitesi's story, the text raises
awareness about the ongoing struggles of refugees and the importance of finding
solutions to end their suffering (Vansina 200).
Patriotism and Reconciliation in the Texts
Both novels by Rusimbi have been impacted by Rwanda's post-colonial
history and contribute to the talks of post-colonial clashes that have
tormented his nation from an insider's point of view (Rusimbi 12). The accounts
examine colonial bequest and awkward post-colonial authority that was driven to
disunity and political insecurity (Mamdani 45). This paper endeavours to appear
Rusimbi's commitment within the setting of Nadine Gordimer's announcement that
"writing illustrates the capacity of individuals to type in their possess
histories and reproduce another trust for disunited Rwanda into a secure
paradise full of add up to compromise and pardoning for not as it were Rwandans
but whole landmass of Africa" (Gordimer 78).
Hence, the concept of national literature plays a significant role
in shaping a country's identity and fostering national awareness (Culler 23).
Russian literary critic Vissarion Belinsky emphasized the importance of
national writing in a country's life, stating that "the universal idea
speaks through humanity itself, and in an unexpected way through each country
in each stage of history" (Belinsky 134). This perspective highlights the
dynamic nature of national literature, which evolves according to the country's
experiences and historical context (Eagleton 56).
Accordingly, Belinsky's views on literature were heavily influenced
by German philosophy, particularly the ideas of Johann Gottlieb Fichte and
Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel (Belinsky 23). He believed that art and
literature should reflect the reality of the world and address the pressing
issues of the time (Belinsky 25). As Belinsky noted, "every intelligent
man has the right to demand that a poet's poetry either give him answers to the
question of the time or at least be filled with the sorrow of those weighty,
indissoluble questions" (Belinsky 27). National literature serves as a
reflection of a country's values, history, and cultural identity (Eagleton 12).
Through literary works, authors can express their thoughts on social issues,
politics, and human experiences, sparking critical discussions and reflections
(Bhabha 45). By exploring the complexities of national literature, readers can
gain a deeper understanding of the country's past, present, and future (Culler
78).
The role of literature in shaping national identity is further
underscored by Belinsky's emphasis on the social duty of artists to reveal the
reality in which they live. This perspective highlights the significance of
literature in promoting social commentary and critique, enabling writers to
contribute to the development of their country's intellectual and cultural
landscape.
With storytelling comes
a sense of identity. But national Literature evolves in stages, and the need
for a literature of one changes according to the political situation of the
nation in question. A new nation, or a nation struggling to declare its independence,
will be driven to create something that is theirs, a literature that tells
their national story.
Critics argue that the approach of linking literature to national
identity and patriotism can be problematic. According to Homi K. Bhabha,
nations are "narrated" entities, and their narratives can be
exclusionary, marginalizing certain groups (Bhabha 209). This raises concerns
about who gets to define a nation's identity and whose stories are left out. In
the context of Rwanda, the emphasis on myths like Kigwa and Gakondo can be seen
as an attempt to create a unified national narrative, potentially glossing over
differences and complexities (Mamdani 156). Mahmood Mamdani argues that such
narratives can be limiting, as they often rely on a single, dominant
perspective (Mamdani 167).
Furthermore, the idea that written literature is more accessible
and effective in mapping out national progress can be challenged. Oral
traditions and other forms of storytelling can be just as powerful and relevant
in shaping national identity (Ong 12). Walter Ong notes that the privileging of
written literature over oral forms can be seen as a reflection of cultural
biases (Ong 15).
Ngugi wa Thiong'o's idea that a nation's literature reflects its
collective reality and worldview can be seen as overly simplistic, as
literature is often subjective and influenced by individual experiences and
biases (Ngugi 23). Moreover, the emphasis on national literature in educational
curricula can be problematic if it prioritizes a dominant narrative over others
(Ngugi 56).
The attempt to supplant European literature with African literature
in Kenyan schools and colleges, as championed by Ngugi wa Thiong'o and others,
has been seen as a positive step towards decolonizing education (Ngugi 78).
However, others argue that this approach can lead to a reverse form of
essentialism, where African literature is seen as homogeneous and monolithic
(Appiah 65). The educational guideline that instruction may be implies of
information approximately us renders their contention conceivable. They
contended that:
Therefore, after we have
examined ourselves, we radiate outwards and discover peoples and worlds around
us. With Africa at the centre of things, not existing as appendix or satellite
of their countries and literature, things must be seen from the African
perspective" (Ngugi 1986).
As a result, some might also question whether Rusimbi's texts,
which deal with themes of exile, genocide, and post-colonialism, are suitable
for all students, particularly those who have experienced trauma or have
different perspectives on these issues. Research suggests that educators should
be aware of the potential impact of curricular content on students' well-being
and consider diverse perspectives (Buchanan-Rivera 12). Moreover, the emphasis
on national literature might lead to concerns about censorship or the promotion
of a particular ideology. Jen Schwanke notes that educators should be prepared
to engage in open dialogue with parents and be transparent about their
curricular choices (Schwanke 15).
Moreover, critics argue that the novel's portrayal of the exilic
experience, while valuable, risks romanticizing or oversimplifying the
complexities of displacement and marginalization (Said 35). Said notes that
exile can be a "potent, even enriching" experience, but it can also
be a source of "crippling sorrow" and disorientation (Said 173). The
novel's focus on the experiences of a cluster or agent character might lead to
concerns about representation and individuality. Are the characters'
experiences representative of the broader refugee population, or are they
exceptional cases (Brah 122)? Avtar Brah argues that the experiences of
refugees are shaped by complex factors, including social, economic, and
cultural contexts (Brah 130). Similarly, the novel's depiction of poverty and
deprivation might be seen as reinforcing stereotypes about refugees or
developing countries (Mohanty 352). Chandra Talpade Mohanty critiques the ways
in which Western discourses often represent Third World peoples as homogeneous
and victimized (Mohanty 352).
Similarly, writers contest that the portrayal of characters in dire
circumstances, such as the Seba family, risks reinforcing stereotypes about
refugees or displaced persons (Malkki 56). Liisa Malkki notes that refugees are
often represented as helpless victims, stripped of their agency and
individuality (Malkki 56). The depiction of Mukakigeli's hut and her
circumstances might be seen as perpetuating images of poverty and despair,
potentially reinforcing negative stereotypes about refugees or Africa (Said 120).
Said argues that such representations can be problematic, as they often rely on
simplistic and dehumanizing portrayals of marginalized groups (Said 120).
Therefore, the suggestion that displaced persons might turn to
antisocial tendencies like alcohol abuse might be seen as stigmatizing or
perpetuating negative stereotypes about refugees (Turton 23). David Turton
notes that refugees are often subject to discriminatory treatment and social
exclusion, which can exacerbate their vulnerability (Turton 23). This is often
communicated by Mukakigeli whereas legitimizing over the top utilization of
unlawful alcohol hence:
This drink is good for
tough men. Men who have survived the fire, drinking and talking about their
past. The heroic past of ancestral kings and chiefs who refused to sell our
people to slave dealers. Our Kingdom was powerful and beautiful. Kings like Rwabugili
were superhuman. He had enlarged our kingdom to the size of Rwanda. When he
died, Belgians took advantage. They divided, ruled and massacred our people.
Those who survived ran to strange lands, so let, them drink as they think about
themselves bravely, stupidity and their cowardice as well” (52).
Similarly, some comment that the portrayal of patriotism and
national identity in the novel relies on an overly simplistic and nostalgic
view of the past (Renan 19). Ernest Renan notes that national identity is often
constructed through selective memories and forgetting (Renan 19). The novel's
emphasis on precolonial solidarity and disunity caused by colonialism might
oversimplify the complexities of Rwandan history and identity.
Accordingly, the depiction of xenophobic treatment towards refugees
also raises questions about the host country's role in perpetuating
marginalization (Malkki 56). Liisa Malkki argues that refugees are often
subject to discriminatory treatment and social exclusion, which can exacerbate
their vulnerability (Malkki 56). The concept of "home" as a central
location of one's intimate life and asylum is also problematic, as it might
romanticize the idea of a fixed and stable homeland (Brah 192). Avtar Brah
notes that the concept of "home" can be complex and multifaceted,
especially for diasporic communities (Brah 192).
More so, some might contend that essentialist ideas of culture and
ethnicity play a significant role in the novel's depiction of identity and
exile (Bhabha 212). National narratives
may be complicated and conflicting, representing both unity and difference,
according to Homi K. Bhabha (Bhabha 212). The emphasis on preserving cultural
identity through memory and tradition might be seen as overly simplistic,
neglecting the complexities of cultural exchange and hybridity (Said 336). Said
argues that cultural identity is often constructed through complex interactions
and power dynamics (Said 336).
On the other hand, the novel's deconstruction of colonial
narratives about Rwandan history is a valuable critique of dominant discourses
(Mamdani 156). Mahmood Mamdani notes that colonial powers often imposed their
own categories and narratives on colonized societies, shaping their
understanding of themselves and their histories (Mamdani 156). The challenge to
Speke's theory about the origins of the Tutsi monarchy is an important
intervention in the debate about Rwandan history and identity (Prunier 45). Gérard
Prunier notes that the colonial construction of Rwandan history has had lasting
impacts on the country's politics and society (Prunier 45).
Besides, despite its value, critics contend that the novel
oversimplifies the complexity of pre-colonial and colonial Rwanda by dissecting
colonial tropes about Rwandan history (Mamdani 156). The legacy of colonialism in Rwanda is
complex, according to Mahmood Mamdani, and uncomplicated accounts might mask
the subtleties of historical experience (Mamdani 156).
The focus on a common
heritage and sense of national identity might be interpreted as an effort to
forge a cohesive story, thereby obscuring the divisions and disputes that exist
within Rwandan society (Prunier 45).
Gérard Prunier contends that social conflicts and intricate power
interactions have characterised Rwanda's history, making it impossible to
distil it into a single story (Prunier 45).
However, the text’s potential to promote discussions about
nationhood, patriotism, and peacebuilding is significant, but its effectiveness
depends on the context and manner of its use (Freire 72). Paulo Freire notes
that education can be a powerful tool for social change, but it requires
critical engagement and reflection (Freire 72). The claim that the work
provides a authentic encounter with Rwanda's history might be contested, as
historical narratives are often subjective and open to interpretation (Trouillot
27). Michel-Rolph Trouillot argues that historical narratives are shaped by
power dynamics and silences, which can affect our understanding of the past
(Trouillot 27).
Therefore, questions of how historical events and refugee
experiences are portrayed are brought up by the novel's blending of fact and
fiction (White 5). According to Hayden
White, narrative techniques and literary tropes are frequently used in
historical narratives, which might influence how we perceive the past (White
5). One may argue that President Habyarimana's response and the way diplomatic
attempts were portrayed oversimplify the complexity of international relations
and refugee politics (Prunier 123).
According to Gérard Prunier, the international community's reaction to
the Rwandan refugee crisis was frequently insufficient and shaped by
geopolitical considerations (Prunier 123).
In addition, the way the exiles' journey and want to return home is
portrayed in the narrative could be interpreted as idealising the experience of
exile and homecoming (Malkki 167).
According to Liisa Malkki, the experiences of refugees are influenced by
intricate social, cultural, and economic elements that go beyond
straightforward themes of homecoming and patriotism (Malkki 167). The
narrative's focus on the victorious military return might be seen as endorsing
violence and militarism as a means of resolving refugee issues (Mamdani
210). Rwanda's history of violence and
militarism, according to Mahmood Mamdani, has had a long-lasting effect on the
nation's politics and society (Mamdani 210).
Thus, given the complexity of Rwanda's past and present
difficulties, observers may contend that the novel's message of optimism and
faith in a brighter future via Kaitesi's character is too hopeful (Prunier
234). According to Gérard Prunier, power
conflicts and persistent tensions have characterised Rwanda's post-genocide
rebuilding (Prunier 234). Although it is a significant appeal, the idea that
African authors should "refract" reality instead of merely reflecting
it calls into question how literature may influence social change (Kehinde
12). According to Richard Kehinde, it is
the duty of African authors to oppose prevailing narratives and advance social
justice (Kehinde 12).
Besides, the use of Nyamata as a setting for The Hyena's Wedding
is significant, given its history as a site of forced resettlement and
displacement (Mamdani 145). Mamdani notes that the legacy of colonial and
post-colonial policies continues to shape the experiences of marginalized
communities in Rwanda (Mamdani 145). The novel's potential for pedagogical
purposes is significant, but it requires careful consideration of the
complexities of Rwanda's history and the ongoing impacts of trauma and
marginalization (Strauss 23). Scott Strauss argues that education about the
genocide and its aftermath must be contextualized to promote understanding and
empathy (Strauss 23).
Because it suggests that only insiders can accurately comprehend
and portray Rwanda's experiences, critics might suggest that the divide between
Rusimbi's method and "tourist writers" is unduly simple (Norridge
12). According to Zoe Norridge, the
quality of writing is not only influenced by the identity or experience of the
author, and authors from diverse backgrounds may provide distinctive viewpoints
to complicated subjects (Norridge 12). Although the novel's depiction of the
genocide and its aftermath may be considered a significant addition to Rwandan
literature, it also calls into question how pain and violence are portrayed
(Scarry 12). According to Elaine Scarry,
depictions of violence can be harmful since they can both increase awareness
and encourage exploitation or voyeurism (Scarry 12).
The starting scene sets the disposition of the novel when the
storyteller compares the winning circumstance to the wedding of the hyena
saying:
… I saw it in my country
when all closed their eyes and accepted untold fears. I saw children without
parents, mothers without babies, old men and old women who would never see
their sons and daughters again. Victims of war and massacres, from all corners
of the earth, had collected under a ruined building (1)
The narrative progresses from the picture of the horrors of genocide to
socio/political reconstruction and national cohesion. The story is told from
the point of view of Musonera, a genocide survivor who highlights the suffering
of the people, and obstacles to reconciliation and reconstruction.
I was a priest myself
before joining the army. They used to call me Father Stanislas Mugabo- a good
Christian who believed in Love. I opposed anybody, including priests and nuns,
who wanted to create ethnic hatred. I became unpopular and felt insecure. One
day, I decided to leave the gown behind and take up a gun to fight (10).
Mugabo’s resolve to
fight injustice and his commitment to the creation of a fair society is aptly
expressed during a meeting with residents. He tells them:
We never fought for
Hutu, Tutsi or Twa. We fought for all Rwandans who must live freely in their
beloved country. A country that was once a land of milk and honey. Our
collective effort to rebuild the nation is highly needed. That is only possible
when we put people from all ethnic groups in administration” ( 20).
Many critics suggest
that Mugabo's persona is presented in an unduly idealised manner and that his
representation as a perfect person does not adequately capture the complexity
of real-life leaders (Strauss 145). According
to Scott Strauss, authoritarian inclinations and restrictions on personal
liberties have characterised Rwanda's post-genocide rule (Strauss 145).
Instead of recognising
the need for institutional reform and assistance, the focus on Musonera's
tenacity and resolve may be seen as placing an excessive responsibility on
individual trauma survivors (Mamdani 210).
According to Mamdani, a more sophisticated comprehension of the
intricate social and political elements that contribute to Rwanda's history of
violence and trauma is necessary (Mamdani 210). The use of characters like
Mugabo and Musonera for teaching purposes may be valuable, but it also raises questions
about the representation of complex issues like reconciliation and trauma
(Hinton 23). Alexander Laban Hinton notes that education about genocide and its
aftermath must be approached with sensitivity and awareness of the ongoing
impacts of trauma on individuals and communities (Hinton 23).
By and large, critics
posit that the portrayal of "solidarity camps" and re-education
programs raises concerns about forced assimilation and ideological
indoctrination (Mamdani 203). Mamdani notes that such programs can be
problematic, as they may prioritize national unity over individual rights and
freedoms (Mamdani 203). The depiction of
Musonera's commitment to public service is admirable, but his prioritization of
duty over fairly life might be seen as neglecting the importance of personal
relationships and individual well-being (hooks 167). Bell Hooks argues that
individuals should strive for a balance between their public and private lives,
rather than sacrificing one for the other (Hooks 167).
Similarly, the
characterization of Harriet's concerns about Musonera's work ethic as a form of
slavery might be seen as a commentary on the complexities of balancing personal
and public responsibilities (Gourevitch 145). Philip Gourevitch notes that survivors
of trauma often face difficult choices and challenges in rebuilding their lives
and contributing to their communities (Gourevitch 145). Dialogue is used to
good advantage in the novel. Contentious issues are debated to show strong and
weak arguments. For instance, during the public trial of a genocide suspect
Karamira, issues of capital punishment, traditional Gacaca justice etc. are
brought to the fore and diverse views are expressed. In conversation with
Mugabo after the trial was adjourned Musonera says:
I do sometimes think
very hard but fail to answer some of the puzzling questions in our society. We
have many genocide suspects as you know and we cannot try them overnight yet
survivors are eager to see justice done, to have their hearts consoled by an appropriate
action towards
culprits. I would
therefore think it appropriate to categorize the genocide criminals (70).
Furthermore, writers
contest that Musonera's stance on punishment for genocide perpetrators raises
complex questions about justice, accountability, and reconciliation (Drumbl
123). Drumbl notes that the pursuit of justice for mass atrocities often involves
difficult trade-offs between punishment, accountability, and reconciliation
(Drumbl 123). The idea of punishing masterminds more severely than lower-level
perpetrators might be seen as reflecting a nuanced understanding of the
complexities of genocide, but it also raises questions about collective guilt
and individual responsibility (Osiel 56). Mark Osiel notes that the law often
struggles to capture the complexities of collective violence and the roles of
individuals within it (Osiel 56).
The use of Musonera's
idea to discuss the causes, course, and prevention of genocide could be
valuable, but it would require careful consideration of the historical and
social context of the Rwandan genocide (Hinton 23). Alexander Laban Hinton
notes that understanding the complexities of genocide requires a nuanced
analysis of the social, cultural, and political factors that contribute to it
(Hinton 23).
Conclusion
John Rusimbi encourages
Rwandan writers to write for Rwandans’ new generation and fresh hope to achieve
absolute integration of the country from the past evil and dark days in the
history of the country. Rwandans and other Africans should read national or
indigenous literature through reader response stresses the importance of the
reader's role in interpreting texts. Literature should be a reflection of its
society therefore a theory that holds that the individual creates his or her
meaning through a "transaction" with the text based on personal
association, bringing his or her own emotions, concerns, life experiences, and
knowledge. All the major characters in the texts under review are willing to
accept reconciliation and forgiveness because of the spirit of patriotism and
unity among diverse ethnic groups in Rwanda. Literature according to John
Rusimbi should be an important tool in building and rebuilding the past glory
that faded away through a formal system of literary curriculum.
In conclusion; the two
novels mirror Rwanda’s post-colonial history highlighting the dark periods of
exile and genocide, reconstruction and reconciliation. Ethnicity is
deconstructed and nationalism is promoted. They are useful academic resources
for national history, Literature etc. In Rwanda classrooms, teachers could
explore the Reader Response approach to engage with these novels to spur
memories and thoughts within the learners, link the texts to personal
experiences and thereby fill in the spaces left by the text.
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