Cite this article as: Ibe, M. C., Ugwuagbo, W., & Krisagbedo, E. C. (2025). Nomination and predication strategies of sympathy steering in Ola Rotimi’s The Gods Are Not to Blame. Sokoto Journal of Linguistics and Communication Studies (SOJOLICS), 1(3), 224–233. https://www.doi.org/10.36349/sojolics.2025.v01i03.029
NOMINATION AND PREDICATION STRATEGIES OF SYMPATHY STEERING IN OLA ROTIMI’S THE GODS ARE NOT TO BLAME
By
Ibe, Marcilina Chidinma PhD Chimars406@gmail.com University of Nigeria, Nsukka
&
Ugwuagbo, Walter, PhD Ugwuagbo.walter@unn.edu.ng University of Nigeria, Nsukka. &
Krisagbedo, Ebere Celina, PhD Ebere.krisagbedo@unn.edu.ng University of Nigeria, Nsukka
Abstract
This study examines the nomination and predication strategies of sympathy steering in Ola Rotimi’s The Gods Are Not to Blame through Ruth Wodak’s Discourse-Historical Approach (DHA) within Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA). unlike earlier studies that emphasise Africanisms, the Nigerian civil war, supernatural determinism, fate, or proverbial richness, this research specifically investigates how Rotimi linguistically frames characters to elicit or withhold audience sympathy. Drawing on insights from empathy and sympathy studies, the analysis explores lexical choices, semantic presuppositions, and predicative attributions position characters within positive
or negative moral alignments. The findings show that sympathy in the play is strategically constructed through discursive techniques rather than mere emotional appeal, and that these strategies operate within the Yoruba socio- cultural worldview where destiny, agency, and supernatural forces intersect. The study concludes that Rotimi’s dramaturgy demonstrates a deliberate interplay of linguistic strategy, cultural context and audience perception, thereby broadening critical understanding of African adaptations of classical tragedy.
Keywords: Sympathy steering, discourse-historical approach, Ola Rotimi, nomination strategies, The Gods Are Not to Blame
1. Introduction
Sympathy, broadly conceived as the capacity to understand and care for the suffering of others, occupies a central place in both moral philosophy and literary criticism. It is often intertwined with victimisation, ethical judgment, and
audience response. In sociological and legal contexts, Tornqvist (2017) connects the concept of sympathy with the idea of the ‘ideal victims’ in Swedish courts, observing how prosecutors and victims’ counsel employ sympathy cues to shape judges’ imaginative concern for complainants, even in institutions that prioritise objectivity and neutrality. Similarly, Tobon (2018) situates sympathy and empathy within the cognitive tradition of the 1980s, emphasising their varieties and ethical import, while Bishop (2021) identifies sympathy as an act of imagination that underpins the recognition of others’ rights. Burke, (2019) advances a related view, defining sympathy as a process of substitution in which one imaginatively inhabits the situation of another, thereby motivating intervention and redress.
In aesthetic and dramatic theory, sympathy is approached as a blend of emotion, imagination, and judgement. Smith (2017) describes it as an imperfectly reflected combination of these faculties, insisting that sympathy arises less from observing another’s passions than from understanding the situation that generates them. Pfister (2001) adapts this position to dramatic studies, distinguishing between audience identification and involvement, and underscoring the structural and relational dimensions of sympathy construction in drama. Likewise, Morrissey, (2017) highlights that sympathy stems not merely from the sharing of feelings but from the imaginatively entering into the character’s circumstances.
Sympathy is understood here as an outward expression of concern or emotional alignment directed toward another person. Empathy, in contrast, refers to the internal ability to understand and share another’s emotional state, while pity involves a sense of sorrow often accompanied by perceived superiority. Within this framework, the study adopts sympathy steering as its core analytical lens. Sympathy steering is defined as the intentional use of linguistic choices, narrative framing, or rhetorical positioning aimed at guiding an audience toward or away from sympathetic interpretation. Within
this intellectual tradition, the present
study situates Ola Rotimi’s The Gods
Are Not to Blame,
a well-known Nigerian adaption of Sophocles’ Oedipus Rex. While scholarship on the play has richly explored Africanism, the Nigerian civil war, determinism, fate, and proverbial density, little attention has been paid to how Rotimi linguistically frames characters to steer or withhold audience sympathy. This gap is significant, given that the play’s dramatic power lies not only in its cultural and thematic concerns but also in the strategic use of language to align or realign audience perception and moral judgement.
This paper therefore examines the nomination and predication strategies employed in The Gods Are Not to Blame, analysing how lexical choices, semantic presuppositions, and evaluative attributions function to construct sympathy within the Yoruba socio-cultural worldview, where destiny, agency, and supernatural forces intersect. The analysis is conducted using Ruth Wodak’s Discourse-Historical Approach (DHA) within Critical Discourse
Analysis (CDA), complemented by insights from empathy and sympathy studies. By foregrounding the discursive mechanisms of sympathy steering, the study aims to expand critical understanding of Rotimi’s dramaturgy and, more broadly, to demonstrate how language mediates emotional and moral reception in African literary adaptations of classical tragedy.
2. Literature Review
Scholarly engagement withRotimi’s The Gods Are Not to Blame (TGANTB)has largely focused on its adaption of the Oedipus myth, its commentary on fate, and its exploration of communal responsibility. A significant body of research has emphasised its Africanism and historical context such as Serhan and Aziz
(2017), Adeniyi and Zaccheaus (2018), and Oguntuase
(2020) argue that Rotimi’s work re-politicises the Greek myth by contextualising it within Yoruba cosmology, thereby shifting the emphasis from divine fatalism to socio-political failure. Their analyses highlight how language, proverb, and communal dialogue reshape the narrative into one concerned with leadership and accountability. However, while theses scholars acknowledge Rotim’s careful deployment of indigenous expression, their discussions primarily centre on ideology rather than emotional or rhetorical effects.
Other scholars exemplified by Adedoyin (2018), Anigbogu and Ahizih (2020) Enwere and Angela (2021) examines the play’s linguistic richness. These scholars argue that Rotimi’s heavy reliance on proverbs, metaphor, and oral registers reinforces its African identity. Yet much of this work treats language as a cultural marker, not as a tool for shaping emotional responses. Their analyses tend to catalogue features of oral tradition without evaluating how those features guide audience sympathy or moral alignment within the
dramatic conflict. Another critical focus has been the role of supernatural forces and fate. Obika and
Ojiakor (2020) and Gbelekale (2021) interpret the play as an allegory of supernatural influence over human destiny within a Yoruba worldview. They maintain that Rotimi skillfully transposes Sophoclean determinism into a context shaped by Yoruba metaphysics, where the intersection of divine will and personal disposition dictates human outcomes. Similarly, Mokani (2021) explores the theme of fate, situating it within west African socio-religious metaphysics. He argues that Rotimi’s tragedy, while aligned with Aristotelian notions of catharsis, departs from the classical focus on tragic flaw by emphasising inherited destiny and cultural conceptions of fate. Further studies address Rotimi’s use of proverbs and figurative language. Again,
Safi, et al (2020) note the imaginative deployment of proverbs in the play as a tool for both critical thinking and moral instruction.
Despite the richness of existing scholarship, very few studies systematically investigate how the rhetorical choices in TGANTB especially insults, metaphors, praise names, and proverbs actively construct sympathy for characters. There is limited analysis of how specific excerpts shape audience emotions, create biases, or influence moral judgement. Furthermore, existing works often treat language as cultural ornamentation rather than as a device with psychological and dramatic consequences. Although TBANTB has been widely studied for its adaptation of classical tragedy, its linguistic Yoruba aesthetics, and its socio-political commentary, scholarly research has not adequately examined how Rotimi’s strategic use of figurative language, emotional rhetoric, and verbal conflict constructs or withhold sympathy for characters. This gap creates the need for a study that moves beyond thematic or cultural description to a close rhetorical analysis of selected excerpts, demonstrating how Rotimi’s language actively guides audience alignment and emotional response.
3. Theoretical Framework
This study is anchored on Ruth Wodak’s Discourse-Historical Approach (DHA), one of the most linguistically oriented scholars of
Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA). Wodak (2001) defines discourse as a “complex bundle of simultaneous
and sequential interrelated linguistic acts, which manifest within and across
the social fields of action as thematically connected semiotic, oral or written tokens” (p.66). These tokens, often realised as text, belong to specific genres and are always connected to other communicative events both synchronically and diachronically (Renugah, 2020). In this sense, discourse is not an isolated phenomenon but a socially embedded act, shaped by immediate interactions ae well as historical trajectories.
The central premise of the
DHA is that discourse must be interpreted in relation to
the socio-political and
historical contexts in which it is embedded (Wodak, 2001, p. 65). To this end, Wodak conceptualises a strategy as a “more or less intentional plan of practice (including discursive practices) adopted to achieve a particular social, political,
psychological or linguistic aim” (p. 8). These strategies are realised through concrete linguistic techniques, what she
calls “discursive practices”. Additionally, each one of these
techniques has various sub-strategies, hence giving them a clear structure.Reisigl and Wodak (2001) identify five principaldiscursive strategies that contribute to positive self-presentation and negative other-presentation: Nomination, Predication, Argumentation, Perspectivisation, and Intensification/mitigation. Each strategy operates at different levels of linguistic organisation and complexity.
Nomination strategies examine how social actors, objects, phenomena and events are named and linguistically represented.Such naming practices frequently label positively (in-group) and negatively (out-group). In this case, the analysis focuses on the lexicalisation of underlying conceptual meanings and the
relation between meaning and form. Lexicalisation analysis is
relevant in descriptions of Self
and Other groups, as it is identifying
them, referring to them and describing their actions and properties.
Predication strategies attribute qualities, traits, or characteristics to actors and phenomena positively or negatively, through implicit or explicit predicates. These strategies often work loosely related with nomination, as naming choices frequently predispose evaluative attributions. Their relationship is mediated by indexicality,the correlation between linguistic choices and their conventionalised context of use (Ochs, 1996, p. 411).
Argumentation strategiesjustify or contest claims by appealing to culturally available the topoi, fallacies, or story- telling.
Perspectivisationstrategies establish the speaker’s stance by invoking other perspectives through quotation, narration, or framing.
Intensification/mitigation strategies strengthen or weaken the illocutionary force of utterance to foreground or downplay attributes, thereby reinforcing or softening evaluative judgements.
The DHA is particularly relevant for literary discourse because it foregrounds intertextual and interdiscursive relationships between utterances, genres, and wider socio-cultural frames while also attending to extra-linguistic variables such as historical contests, institutional dynamics, and situational frames. Although the Discourse Historical Approach outlines five interrelated strategies, this study limits its analytical focus to two- nomination and predication. This limitation is justified on methodological, pragmatic, and theoretical grounds. The primary objective of this study is to examine how figurative language constructs or withhold sympathy. Of the five DHA strategies, nomination and predication are the strategies most directly aligned with emotional positioning and audience sympathy. Focusing on these ensures conceptual clarity and avoids dispersing attention across strategies that do not directly advance the study’s core purpose.
4. Methodology
The study adopts a qualitative research design grounded in Ruth Wodak’s Discourse-Historical Approach
(DHA) as a branch of Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA). This framework is appropriate because it systematically links linguistic choices with their socio-cultural and historical contexts, making it suitable for analysing how sympathy is discursively constructed in literature.
The primary data consists of thirty-seven (32) selected excerpts purposively selected from Ola Rotimi’s The Gods Are Not to Blame, based on methodological relevance and their capacityto reveal strategies of sympathy steering.Only passages that
contain metaphors, proverbs, symbolic descriptions, praise names, or emotionally charged expressions were selected. These linguistic features are most relevant to the study’s focus on how language steers audience sympathy. Excerpts were included if they contribute significantly to the audience’s perception of major characters, either enhancing sympathy or withholding it. Passages that do not directly shape character perception were excluded.
5. Findings
Referential or Nomination strategies gather information by identifying the linguistic devices used in the utterances of the text. In the gods are not to blame, such strategies create in-groups and out-groups thereby constructing and representingsocial actors. Among the categorisation techniques employed are metaphor, metonymy synecdoche, and deixis. These techniques frequently enact pars pro toto (a part standing for the whole) or totum pro parte(a whole standing in for a part), highlighting particular aspects of characters or situations to steer audience sympathy. Metaphorical and metonymical items
According to Searle (1979), metaphorical utterances cannot be reduced to literal equivalent meanings because they involve distinct truth conditions. Their interpretation is therefore context-dependent, and similarity becomes central to their analysis. Metaphors in Rotimi’s play are not merely decorative but serve to encode emotional and moral evaluations. Fansilber and Ortony (1987) further note that metaphors are powerful tools for describing emotions, particularly strong or overwhelming ones. This aligns with Rotimi’s dramaturgy, where metaphors act as linguistic strategies of sympathy steering. The metaphors utilised in the text are categorised into four main types: Animating metaphors- attributing vitality to abstract conditions or forces (e.g., Life is a struggle); Standard metaphors- conventionalised figurative expressions (e.g. the weapon of Truth); Conceptual metaphors- figurative patterns mapping one domain onto another (e.g. let pigs eat shame and men eat dung); and Personifying metaphor-attributing human qualities to non-human elements (e.g. bed sharer). These metaphorical expressions used in the text portray emotive language that steers sympathy. Let’s consider some examples of animating metaphors found in the text below:
Excerpt 1
Your intrigues and the blackmail and – oh, Take your time child if you rise too early,
the dew of life will soak you (TGANTB, p.36) Excerpt 2
That’s the spirit, my people,
Go about it with gladness! Life is a struggle (TGANTB, p.15). Excerpt 3
…. Whoever the rain sees, on him it rains. You do me great Wrong therefore to think that, like a rock in the middle of
a lake, forever cooled by a flowing water, I do not
know, and cannot know, the
sun’s hotness that burns and dries up the open land, indeed you do me a great wrong my people. (TBANTB, p. 35)
These animating and personifying metaphors humanise abstract experiences of fate, suffering, and leadership. In excerpt 1, the metaphor of “the dew of life” soaking a child who rises “too early” evokes vulnerability and inexperience. By framing the addressee as a “child”, the speaker employs a nurturing and cautionary
one, prompting the audience to sympathise with the character’s fragility and impending exposure to harsh realities. The imagery positions the child as someone needing protection, thereby steering sympathy toward him. The metaphor “life is a struggle” universalizes hardship, legitimising the community’s suffering. The encouragement to “go about it with gladness” positions the speaker as motivational and supportive, evoking communal solidarity.
This collective framing fosters sympathy by acknowledging shared burdens. The metaphors of “rain” and “sun’s hotness” construct universal human suffering. The speaker’s claim that he too experiences the “heat” suggests emotional humility, inviting the audience to sympathise with him as someone equally exposed to pain. The imagery dispels the notion of privilege or distance, fostering compassion.
Standard or stock metaphors are conventional expression that,though often employed, have not fully gained traction into ordinary language. In The Gods Are Not to Blamesuch metaphors are strategically used to evoke sympathy
because they tap into shared cultural or existential anxieties, allowing the audience to project themselves into the fate of the characters. Let’s consider some examples of standard metaphors below:
Excerpt 4
SECOND CHIEF: What weapon is it you have used?
BABA FAKUNLE: Truth. The weapon of Truth.
ODEWALE: (scornfully). What truth?
BABA FAKUNLE: The truth that you are the cursed murdered that you seek. (TGANTB, p. 28)
In excerpt4, Baba Fakunle’s declaration “the weapon of truth” frames truth as something sharp, forceful, and capable of penetrating deception. By presenting truth as a “weapon,” the statement casts Baba Fakunle as a fearless truth-teller, positioning him as someone compelled to reveal painful realities despite danger or hostility. This portrayal encourages sympathy for him as a courageous, perhaps misunderstood, bearer of unpleasant revelations.However, the same metaphor functions to withhold sympathy from Odewale. By declaring that truth exposes him as “the cursed murderer”, the metaphor weaponizes revelation against him. Rather than inviting compassion, it marks him as guilty and accursed. Emotional distance is created, leading the audience towards judgement rather than sympathy. Odewale’s scornful reaction further complicates emotional alignment, suggesting defensiveness rather than innocence.
Conceptual metaphors draw on shared individual or collective experiences to map one domain of meaning onto another. In The Gods Are Not to Blame, these metaphors become sympathy-steering strategies because they frame abstract experiences such as dishonor, grief, or leadership within familiar cultural and existential images. By doing so, they allow the audience to grasp complex emotions in tangible terms, thereby intensifying their identification with the characters’ plight. Some examples of conceptual metaphor areseen below:
Excerpt 5
My people when the elders we esteem so highly can sell their honors for devil’s money,
then let pigs eat shame and men eat dung. (TGANTB, p. 27) Excerpt 6
ODEWALE: Wife, this is my friend of all friends, my brother… no my master. He taught me everything in my
father’s house in Ijekun (TGANTB, p.44) Excerpt 7
ROYAL BARD: King is greater than king. It is not changing into the lion that is hard, It is getting the tail of a lion. Odewale,
king, son of Ogundele,
You will last long to rule us: Kolanut lasts long in the mouths Of them who value it! (TGANTB, p.7)
Excerpt 8
ODEWALE: In their joy, the people made me king, me, of Ijekun tribe. They broke tradition and made me, unasked, king of Kutuje. (TGANTB, p.7)
Excerpt 9
SECOND CITIZEN: When the head of a household dies, the house becomes an empty shell.
But we have you as our head, and with you,
our chiefs; yet we do not know whether to thank
the gods
that you are with us, or to look elsewhere for hope (TGANTB, p.9)
In excerpt 5, the metaphor “devil’s money” frames the elder’ corruption as spiritually destructive rather than merely political. It positions the speaker as morally upright, inviting sympathy for him and for the community betrayed by corrupt leaders. The metaphors “pigs eat shame and men eat dung” intensify the sense of collective humiliation, stirring emotional alignment with the people who suffer under compromised leadership. “Friend of all friends” and “my master” amplify the depth of Odewale’s loyalty and gratitude. His humility in elevating another man above himself invites sympathy by portraying him as respectful, teachable, and emotionally sincere. This humanises Odewale, encouraging readers to see him as capable of love and deep relational bonds. In excerpt 7, the metaphors construct sympathy by portraying Odewale as a strong yetdeserving ruler whose authority was hard- earned and whose reign is valued. The metaphorical phrasing “broke tradition” in excerpt 8, portrays the people’s acceptance of Odewale was a
powerful gesture of trust and
affection. By emphasising that he
was chosen “unasked,” Odewale is cast as a reluctant, humble leader whose elevation was a response to merit rather than ambition. This fosters sympathy as he appears honourable and grounded.
Personifying or (anthropomorphic) metaphors attribute human or animate qualities to inanimate objects, abstract concepts, or animals. In The Gods Are Not to Blame, such metaphors heighten emotional resonance by dramatising otherwise abstract conditions, thereby evoking sympathy for both individuals and the collective.
Excerpt 10
Again you force words from me!
You force words from me again…you bed sharer! (TGANTB, p.29)
Excerpt 11
No, you are a tortoise, a coward, a conniving slippery maggot!
So you go round me, bribe that blind bat to come and point his finger at me as the cursed killer of your father.
Tell me now, is that not the act of crawling, cunning tortoise? (TGANTB, p.34)
Excerpt 12
Scorpion! My child scorpion
Scorpion one that must not be vexed (TGANTB, p.43)
Excerpt 13
We have all lived in joy these eleven years and Kutuje has prospered.
But joy has a slender body that breaks too soon (TGANTB, p.8)
Excerpt 14
How long must feverish birds tremble in silence Before their keeper? (TGANTB, p.10)
Excerpt 10, uses the outburst“bed sharer”to withhold sympathy from the accused by casting them in a morally compromising light. The harsh accusation immediately positions the hearer as guilty and unworthy of trust. The emotional intensity of the speaker’s frustration shifts the audience’s sympathy away from the accused and align them with the speaker’s sense of betrayal. Excerpt 11 withholds sympathy even more strongly through a stream of dehumanizing images: “tortoise,” “coward,” “slippery maggot,” and “blind bat.” These insults strip the target of dignity and reduce them to cunning, low creatures. The cumulative effect is to make the audience see the accused as deceitful and morally tainted, thereby blocking emotional alignment with them and reinforcing the speaker’s moral outrage. In excerpt 12, the metaphor of a “child scorpion” creates an ambivalent emotional effect. On one hand, calling a child a “scorpion” could
withhold sympathy by portraying the child
as dangerous or volatile. On
the other hand, the speaker’s affectionate phrasing “my child scorpion” softens the image and introduces an undertone of care. The result is a mixture of admiration and caution, allowing sympathy to be both constructed and restrained at the same time. Excerpt 13 constructs sympathy by portraying joy as a fragile human body “a slender body that breaks too soon.” This metaphor presents the community as vulnerable, having enjoyed peace only briefly before
being plunged into crisis. By framing their happiness as delicate and easily shattered, the play invites the audience to sympathise with the people of Kutuje as underserving victims of looming misfortune. Excerpt 14 strengthens communal sympathy through the image of “feverish birds trembling in silence.” By comparing the people to sick, helpless birds waiting for their keeper, the excerpt foregrounds their weakness and suffering. This evokes sympathy for the neglected citizens while subtly criticising the leader whose silence prolongs their pain. The audience is emotionally drawn toward the suffering community and away from a leadership figure portrayed as inattentive.
Synecdoche involves a part standing for the whole (pars pro toto) or the whole representing a part (totum pro parte). When deployed as a nomination strategy, synecdoche simplifies complex realities into vivid, condensed images that resonate emotionally with audiences. Examples are seen below:
Excerpt 15
When the head of a household dies, the house becomes
an empty shell. But we have you as our head,
and with you, our chiefs… (TGANTB, p.9)
Excerpt 16
The way he too accused us yesterday in
the eyes of the whole world
(TGANTB, p.30)
Excerpt 15 draws on the phrase of the“head of a household”to represent leadership and “house” to symbolise the community. By describing a leaderless community as “an empty shell,” the stamen constructs sympathy for the people of Kutuje, who are portrayed as vulnerable and incomplete without stable guidance. The emotional force of comparing political disorder to the death of a family head taps into shared cultural understandings of loss, thereby intensifying sympathy for the community while simultaneously elevating Odewale as their source of security. Excerpts 16 uses the underline phrase to dramatise the extent of public exposure and judgement. This exaggeration universalizes the shame felt by the speakers, constructing sympathy for them by highlighting how deeply they have been humiliated. By framing the accusation as something made
before “the whole world,” the excerpt positions the community as unfairly disgraced, encouraging the audience to align emotionally with their sense of wounded dignity rather than with Odewale’s harshness.
Deictic Elements
The data analysis also reveals extensive use of deictic
expressions, particularly pronominal deixis, in the discursive construction of social actors. Deixis, as Chilton (2004) notes, reflects how situational elements are perceived in relation to indexical statements. In The Gods Are Not to Blame, deictic pronouns are grouped into in-group and out- group categories, which frame insiders and outsiders in ways that strategically steer sympathy. The in-group category includes pronouns such as ‘I’, ‘we’, ‘our, which mark solidarity and collective identity. They are used by elite actors e.g., king Odewale, the women, chiefs, and the townspeople of Kutuje either negatively or positivelyto highlight shared burdens and aspirations. By contrast, the out group (collectivisation) includes pronouns such as ‘they’, ‘them’, and ‘their’ often used in reference to external groups e.g. people of Ijekun, Ede’s attackers and Ikolu invaders. Examples are seen below:
Excerpt 17
We have all lived in joy
Enough! People of our land... but we have you as our head...
Do you think we have no thoughts in our mind for your good? (TGANTB, p.9)
Excerpt 18
To what gods have we not made sacrifice…?
What god have we not called upon to
help us? (TGANTB, p.11)
Excerpt 19
We have also sent for Baba Fakunle.
All we ask you is; we did not say
cry for him.
We have sent Aderopo to Ile-ife, the land of Orunmila,
to ask the all-seeing god why we are in pain. (TGANTB, p.12)
Excerpt 20
We thank our king
We are suffering my lord, we are.
We suffer much, we die, you moan. (TGANTB, p.12)
The use of ‘we’ is grouped cohesively in cases where the speaker succeeds in demonstrating solidarity with his audience. The examples above show the usage of exclusive and inclusive ‘we’. In excerpt17, Odewale, saying “we have all lived in joy”, places himself in alignment with the people by using the first-person plural ‘we’. In excerpt19 and 20, the collective “we” highlights the communal effort in appeasing the gods, presenting the plague as a shared tragedy rather than an individual burden. In excerpt 20, however, ‘we’ conveys helplessness and suffering, intensifying the emotional appeal for pity.Using words like; die, suffer, cry, pain, sacrifice to show the
people’s predicament, controls the emotions of the audience. Possessive pronouns (“our”) further reinforce solidarity and shared vulnerability. Examples are shown below:
Excerpt 21
A killer in our mist?
No, no. that is no punishment for the killer of a king
and bringer of so much suffering to our people. We will kill him slowly (TGANTB, p.21)
Excerpt 22
Bring stools here, my people; we have been walking on a
wrong road. Our biggest trouble today is not the sickness in our land, it is the plague in our hearts. Our hearts and heads are sick with
too much leaning on the powers. (TGANTB, p.59)
Here, the recurring “our” stresses collective possession of suffering and guilt, intensifying the emotional weight borne by both king and subjects. In contrast, the out-group pronouns (they, them, their) construct hostile collectivities whose actions justify fear and sympathy for Kutuje.
Excerpt 23
When they attacked and enslaved our land We have suffered long in silence,
Children of our fathers, we beg for forgiveness (TGANTB, p.10)
Excerpt 24
They killed hundreds, they seized hundreds, they enslaved hundreds more, and left behind
in the land of Kutuje hunger, thirst and fear (TGANTB, Prologue 5)
Excerpt 25
I look about me… eyes, white, vacant, innocent, they stare back from faces of sorrow and pain. When crocodiles eat their own eggs,
what will they not do to
the flesh of a frog? (TGANTB, p. 23)
Excerpt 26
Pray, have mercy, I meant you no wrong,
I only tried
to spare your life, my lord, I meant no harm. They ordered me to kill you in the bush,
but I took pity and gave. (TGANTB, p. 68)
Excerpt 27
ODEWALE: They knew my weakness: the weakness of a man easily moved to the defense of his tribe against others.
I once saw a man on my farm in Ede. I could have spared him. (TGANTB, p.71)
In excerpt 23, the people’s humble tone and confession of suffering create sympathy for them, presenting them as patient victims. Their plea for forgiveness also softens their image, making their pain appear genuine and underserved. The graphic listing of killings and deprivation constructs strong sympathy for the community. The repetition of “hundred” emphasizes mass suffering, positioning the people as victims of catastrophic violence. The vivid imagery of vacant eyes and sorrow appeals to emotional sympathy. The proverb suggests betrayal so brutal that it evokes horror, directing sympathy toward those who have been helplessly wounded by their own. The speaker’s plea for mercy and admission of pity in excerpt 26 constructs sympathy for him by presenting his act as compassionate, not malicious. Yet his involvement in a killing attempt slightly limits that sympathy. Odewale’s confession of a personal weakness humanises him and builds sympathy. His regret shows moral awareness, but the reminder of past violence partially without full sympathy.
Deictic pronouns thus function as nomination strategies by mapping group identity, solidarity, and opposition. In- group deixis (we, our) evokes collective suffering and shared destiny, while out-group deixis (they, them, their) externalises blame and constructs hostile forces. Theses linguistic markers steer sympathy by collapsing the distance between readers and characters, inviting audiences to feel, decide, and act with the in-group. As Allen (2007) observes, the pronoun “our” may allude not only to collective belonging but also to shared truths or common knowledge, making the audience co-participants in the discourse. By foregrounding solidarity, helplessness, and resistance, Rotimi’s use of deixis strengthens the tragic resonance of the play and secures the audience’s empathetic alignment.
Predication Strategies
Predication refers to the categorisation of data through the linguistic devices employed in sentences or utterances to mobilise sympathy. Such devices include the attribution of positive or negative traits to social actors, the use of implicit and explicit predicates, simile and rhetorical questions. Their manifestation will be examined in the texts.
Positive-self and negative-other
Social actors are discursively positioned along the positive self and negative other. This strategy underscores the pragmatic significances of the text in shaping meaning and positioning. Let’s considered some examples of positive-self traits below:
Excerpt 28
Bring me those herbs I cut from the bush last night. Everybody, come and see … I, with
my own two hands, and
alone in the bush …?
ODEWALE: … [Calling] Abero!
Ab— Here I am, my lord. (TGANTB, p. 15)
In this passage, Odewale admonisheshis people not to remain passive in the face of misfortune. Rather than relying on divine intervention, he exhorts them to seek practical solutions. By noting that he has personally gathered herbs for his family, Odewale positions himself as diligent and resourceful. This self-presentation constitutes a positive- self strategy, projecting responsibility and leadership. Pragmatically, the utterances functions as commands and advice, while linguistically they operate to incite communal action.
Explicit Simile and Rhetorical Questions
Simile and rhetorical questions constitute additional discursive strategies which sympathy is elicited. The playwright employs these devices to convey emotional intensity and to shape audience perception. The following instances illustrate the use of simile:
Excerpt 29
Your hot temper, like a disease from birth is
the curse that has brought you trouble (TGANTB, P.29) Excerpt 30
Is it because the king called you plotter in the death of
our former king, that now, like a parrot that has eaten
too much pepper, you call him murderer (TGANTB, p. 28) Excerpt 31
Scorpion! One that must not be vexed Smooth on the surface like a woman’s jewel
Poison at the tail, it is you I greet (TGANTB, p.43) Excerpt 32
Baba Fakunle, blind but all knowing:
head downwards like a bat, and like a bat
fully aware of the way the birds fly (TGANTB, p.26)
by describing Odewale’s temper as an inborn “disease, ”the excerpt reduces personal blame and frames him as someone afflicted rather than intentionally destructive. This phrase constructs partial sympathy by portraying his flaw as something he struggles with yet still holds him accountable for its consequences. The comparison to a pepper-fed parrot presents the speaker as impulsive and loud, a figure lacking restraint. This comic but critical imagery withhold sympathy by portraying the speaker’s accusation as childish and reactionary rather than courageous or justified. The scorpion metaphor constructs distrust rather than sympathy. The smooth exterior contrasted with hidden poison depicts the character as dangerous and deceptive. Sympathy is withheld because the speech highlights threats rather than suffering. The paradox of being “blind but all knowing” and the bat imagery generate awe and respect. Sympathy is constructed by presenting him as physically vulnerable yet spiritually powerful, elevating him beyond mere pity to a figure of mystical credibility.
6. Conclusion
This study demonstrated that Wodak’ Discourse-Historical Approach (DHA) provides a robust framework for interpreting dramatic text, as it accommodates a blend of pragmatic features for discursive analysis. The tragic atmosphere sustained throughout the play (TGANTB) exposes a serious and frightening situation that evokes sustained sympathy from readers and audiences alike. Unlike comedic drama, the play maintains an unrelenting tension and conflict, meticulously constructed through dialogue and interaction.
The analysis revealed that characters strategically deploy discursive choices to manifest and express intentions, emotions, and experiences within specific contexts. These choices are not arbitrary but are shaped by the thematic preoccupations of the playwright, thereby influencing character actions and audience perception. The study also reinforces the significance of Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) in unpacking the ways language mediates meaning, construct social actors, and elicits emotional engagement with literary texts.
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