Speech Impairment among Hausa Speakers: Some Phonological Processes

Citation: Hassan, F.M. (2026). Speech Impairment among Hausa Speakers: Some Phonological Processes. Tasambo Journal of Language, Literature, and Culture, 5(2), 50-61. www.doi.org/10.36349/tjllc.2026.v05i02.007.

SPEECH IMPAIRMENT AMONG HAUSA SPEAKERS: SOME PHONOLOGICAL PROCESSES

By

Fauziyya Muhammad Hassan Ph.D

Department of Hausa Language

Yusuf Maitama Sule Federal University of Education Kano

+2348072515470

Fauziyyahassan46@gmail.com

Abstract

Language is a tool by which human beings express their thoughts. Thus, language plays a significant role in learning and social interaction. A condition whereby a group of people cannot express their thoughts in a usual way through language presents a research problem that deserves the attention of linguists. Language abnormality is an important area of linguistic research that examines deviations in language use as a result of factors such as physiological, neurological, and environmental. Among Hausa speakers, speech impairment often manifests in unique phonological patterns that can affect intelligibility and effective communication. This paper explores speech impairment and phonological processes within the Hausa linguistic community, focusing on how language abnormality influences sound production. Data were collected from Hausa-speaking individuals with speech impairment through oral interviews, spontaneous speech observation, and word-list elicitation. The speech data were audio-recorded and transcribed using the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA). The analysis focuses on recurring phonological patterns rather than individual speaker errors. The research is based on Natural Phonology Theory (Stampe, 1973), supported by Distinctive Feature Theory (Jakobson & Halle, 1956). The study then delves into key phonological processes common among Hausa speakers experiencing language abnormality, including regressive assimilation, affrication, liquidization, gemination, and deletion. Each process is described with examples, showing how abnormality can alter the realization of sounds in Hausa. By linking linguistic theory to practical speech challenges, the paper demonstrates how impairments influence phonological structure and communication in Hausa-speaking contexts. This research recommends the need for early diagnosis and culturally sensitive intervention strategies, which are crucial for speech pathologists, language educators, and linguists. It also recommends the importance of studying language abnormality not only for clinical applications but also for deepening the understanding of Hausa phonology and its adaptability under abnormal speech conditions. By examining how speech impairment reshapes familiar phonological processes, this paper contributes to the broader study of language variation, speech therapy, and linguistic diversity.

Keywords: Speech Impairments, Phonology, Hausa speakers, Assimilation, Affrication, Gemination, Deletion

1.0              Introduction

Social communication by way of speech is one of the characteristics that is unique to humankind. Differences exist among mankind in the way and manner in which they speak, where most people speak in a normal way, and a few speak extraordinarily. The latter group of language users displays either superior or defective language behaviour.

Persons who manifest defective language behaviour are known by different names that include abnormal, handicapped, disabled, and deviant. These groups of people are found to use language in a way other than how most of the language users do. The difference may relate specifically to the areas of phonology, morphology, syntax, or semantics. The abnormality in an individual may be in one or more areas of language structure. These kinds of language abnormalities constitute a hitch in the individual’s ability to communicate properly. Speech coming from the abnormal is either difficult to comprehend, unintelligible, or both. This category of people is in need of speech therapy to help them overcome or minimize the severity of their problem. The therapy required is either linguistic or clinical.

Language abnormality can be due to varying causes. The causes may be before, during, or after birth, otherwise referred to as pre- and postnatal periods. Where the abnormality occurs in the chromosomal formation or due to the condition of the expectant mother, then it is before birth. On the other hand, accidents may be encountered either in the course of delivery or thereafter, resulting in language abnormality.

‘The tendency for the abnormal to acquire language (phonological system) either in a normal way like any other child or in an abnormal way that needs the attention of a specialist’. In the former, the abnormality appears in delayed language acquisition, while the latter may show patterns of language acquisition other than those of the normal children’ (Ingram 1976).

For very young children, early treatment may prevent a developmental disorder from becoming a lifelong problem. Certain strategies can help children learn to improve their speech fluency while developing positive attitudes toward communication (NIDCD, 2016). Overcoming the problem of language abnormality will translate into an accomplishment and satisfaction in the patient; social approval for accomplishing a developmental task; improved interaction with the environment, and a more meaningful and intelligible speech.

2.0              Speech Impairment

Speech impairment involves difficulties in producing sounds or words, leading to reduced intelligibility. It is a subset of communication disorders that may affect individuals across different linguistic communities.

Dada (2001) defined speech impairment as “any speech that deviates from the average, so far as to draw unfavorable attention to the speaker, whether through unpleasant sound, inappropriateness to the age level, or lack of intelligibility”.

Furthermore, the American Speech Hearing Association (ASHA, 1977) described language impairment as a state in which an individual does not display knowledge of the system of linguistic needs commensurate with the expected norms. From the definitions above, an impaired speech is characterized by:

·         Inaudible speech

·         Unintelligible speech

·         Unpleasant speech

·         Monotonous quality of voice

·         Problem of articulation

Along the same line, the term ‘exceptionality’ may be used to describe any individual whose physical, mental, or behavioural performance is so different from the norm, either higher or lower, that additional services are required to meet the individual's needs (Ekoja and Ekoja, 2006).

Therefore, speech impairment as used in this context refers to a tendency where people talk or speak using incomplete utterances in respect of lexical and syntactic structure, unlike their normal counterparts.

2.1 Classification of Speech Impairment:

Speech impairment entails a number of speech-related language abnormalities, it ranges from defects of articulation and voice, stuttering, cluttering, delayed language development, aphasia, and speech impairment. Below, a brief meaning of the various aspects of speech impairment is presented.

Dada (2001) classified speech impairment as follows:

i.        Defect of articulation: This is either an omission, distortion, or substitution of a speech sound.

ii.     Defect of voice: Includes quality, loudness, and pitch variety.

iii.  Stuttering: It is otherwise known as stammering, which means speech that lacks rhythm.

iv.   Cluttering: Confused speech.

v.      Delayed language development: e.g., a three-year-old child who cannot express himself is said to have a delayed language development.

vi.   Aphasia: It refers to a child’s inability to communicate by speech.

vii.Speech impairment associated with defective hearing.

2.2 Causes of Speech Impairment

The causes of speech impairment include congenital and acquired, as disclosed by this, the acquired/material ones are:

i.        Organs: due to damage to some physical structures of parts of the speech mechanism, such as teeth, tongue, and other parts of the vocal cavity.

ii.     Hearing Loss: Children with early severe hearing problems will have speech difficulties.

Many genetic abnormalities can produce different abnormal functioning of the sensory organs. Such psychological factors and emotional disturbance in the expectant mother or malformation of speech organs in the fetus can lead to speech impairment in the would-be child (Dada, 2001).

2.3 Characteristics of Speech Impaired Children:

The speech-impaired children manifest linguistic abnormalities at different periods (stages) of their development, i.e., 2, 3, and 4 years. Van Ripers (1978) itemized the characteristics of speech impairment into the following:

i.        Inability to talk by the age of 24 months.

ii.      Use of unintelligible speech after the age of 36 months.

iii.   Omission of first sounds in words after the age of 3 years.

iv.   Inability to make a complete sentence by the age of four.

v.      Repetition or prolongation of sounds and syllables.

vi.   Delayed language development.

vii. Articulation disorders and voice disorders.

The aforementioned characteristics relate to linguistic abnormality behaviours among the underage. Thus, one can rightly deduce that the greater part of language abnormalities found among grown-up children, adolescents, and even adults are rooted in the early childhood stage of development.

2.4 How Speech Impairment Affects Language?

Nnachi (2007) explained that the abnormality that affects language are damages to the left hemisphere that can lead to expressive aphasia and receptive aphasia.

Damage to the right hemispherical areas does not necessarily lead to language problems in most people. Expressive aphasia is a language problem discovered by Paul Broca (and is known as Broca’s aphasia) in which there is a disruption in the ability to produce coherent speech. Any person with this type of problem is limited in speech making. The individual would learn but would be severely hindered in pronouncing words or expressing statements; the speech could be ungrammatical. Receptive aphasia is a language problem discovered by Carl Wernickes (otherwise known as Wernicke’s aphasia) in which there is a disruption in comprehending spoken or written language. The Wernicke’s aphasics have difficulty in understanding what is spoken to them and do not even monitor what they say. Their speeches could be very fluent but full of errors, may make little or no sense, and could be practically incoherent. (Nnachi, 2007).

3.0 Literature Review

Speech impairment is a major category of communication disorder characterized by difficulties in the production, organization, and intelligibility of speech sounds. It often manifests through systematic deviations such as substitution, deletion, distortion, and simplification of sounds, reflecting underlying phonological or articulatory difficulties. Paul and Norbury (2012) explain that speech impairment is not merely a motor problem but frequently involves phonological processes that disrupt the normal sound system of a language. These processes, which are typical in early language development, become disordered when they persist beyond childhood and interfere with effective communication.

Studies across developing countries indicate that speech impairment is highly prevalent among children and adolescents, with phonological disorders forming a substantial proportion of identified cases. In Nigeria, Adegbiji et al. (2019) report that speech disorders constitute the most common form of communication disorder among children, surpassing language, voice, and fluency disorders. The study further observes that many affected individuals present with persistent phonological errors, suggesting long-standing speech impairment rather than developmental delay. These findings highlight the importance of examining speech impairment within specific linguistic communities, such as Hausa speakers, whose phonological systems differ markedly from Indo-European languages.

Research also shows that speech impairment is frequently characterized by the persistence of phonological processes that should normally be suppressed during early childhood. Paul and Norbury (2012) note that such processes include substitution, devoicing, simplification of complex segments, and reduction of articulatory gestures. When these patterns remain active into adolescence, they indicate a phonological disorder rooted in speech impairment. Adegbiji et al. (2019) similarly observe that Nigerian children with speech impairment often exhibit systematic sound errors that significantly reduce intelligibility, emphasizing the phonological nature of many speech disorders.

Nwosu (2015) provides further evidence of the high prevalence of speech impairment in Nigeria, reporting that speech and phonological disorders account for a significant percentage of communication disorders identified in clinical and educational settings. The study notes that most Nigerian research on speech impairment adopts a medical or epidemiological approach, focusing on prevalence and associated conditions such as hearing loss, while giving limited attention to the internal phonological patterns of impaired speech. As a result, there is inadequate documentation of how speech impairment manifests through specific phonological processes in indigenous African languages.

Despite Hausa being one of the most widely spoken languages in Africa, there is a scarcity of studies examining speech impairment among Hausa speakers from a phonological perspective. Existing descriptions of Hausa phonology focus largely on the standard sound system, with little attention to deviations arising from speech impairment. Paul and Norbury (2012) stress that speech impairment must be analyzed within the phonological structure of the affected language in order to capture language-specific patterns. The lack of Hausa-based phonological studies on speech impairment, therefore, constitutes a significant research gap.

Consequently, there is a clear need for studies that document and analyze phonological processes associated with speech impairment among Hausa speakers. By examining processes such as substitution, devoicing, and simplification within Hausa speech, such research contributes not only to clinical linguistics but also to a deeper understanding of Hausa phonology under impaired speech conditions. The present study addresses this gap by investigating some phonological processes observed among Hausa speakers with speech impairment, thereby enriching both linguistic theory and speech disorder research in African language contexts.

4.0  Methodology

The study adopts a descriptive qualitative approach. Data were collected from Hausa-speaking individuals identified with speech impairment. The methods of data collection include oral interviews, observation of spontaneous speech, and structured word-list tasks.

All speech samples were audio-recorded and later transcribed using the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA). The data were analyzed by identifying recurring phonological patterns and classifying them into phonological processes such as assimilation, substitution, and deletion. Individual speaker variation was not the primary focus of the analysis.

5.0 Theoretical Framework

This study is anchored in the Natural Phonology Theory proposed by Stampe (1973). The theory explains that phonological processes are natural and universal strategies used to simplify speech production. While these processes are suppressed in normal adult speech, they may remain active in speech-impaired individuals.

The study is further supported by Distinctive Feature Theory (Jakobson & Halle, 1956), which explains sound production in terms of shared and contrasting phonological features. This theory helps explain why certain sounds are substituted with others that share similar features.

6.0 Phonological Process among Hausa Speakers with Speech Impairment

Speech Impairment may disrupt the normal acquisition and use of vocabulary, grammar, and phonology. For Hausa speakers, this could mean mispronouncing certain phonemes, failing to differentiate between minimal pairs, or altering prosody and intonation patterns.

This paper examined the data collected. The information gathered was accordingly analyzed. Instead of analyzing the data by individual research subjects, emphasis was more on the phonological processes. In otherwords, the responses of the research subjects were classified according to such phonological processes as assimilation, affrication, deplatalization, despirantization, lateralization, etc.

An analysis of the data collected revealed that the research subjects were able to apply tonation in their speech like any other normal person. However, the application of vowel length was abnormal. Below is the analysis of the data collected using phonological processes:

6.1 Regressive Assimilation: is a situation whereby one sound affects the pronunciation of another sound. This occurs when a sound changes to become more like a following sound, the two sounds thereby becoming either voiced or voiceless.

Example 1.

For examples:

Normal	Abnormal	Gloss
a)      bàrgoo	baggoo	blanket
b)     turmii	tummii	Motor
c)      murfii	muffii	cover

 

The sounds [g] (voiced velar stop), [m] (voiced bilabial nasal), [Φ] (voiceless bilabial fricative) are sounds that assimilate /r/ (voiced alveolar trill), the other sound to have a uniform consonant (Hassan, 2009).

 

For examples:

Normal	Abnormal	Gloss
d)     tàakàlmii	tàakàmmi	shoe
e)      àljiihuu	àjjiihuu	pocket

 

And the remaining two examples have/l/ (voiced alveolar lateral); as a left-hand sound, the sound [ʤ] (voiced post-alveolar affricate) assimilates.

In the assimilatory phonological process (as shown above), a segment may take on features from neighbouring segment i.e consonants are also influenced by another with the same features (Yusuf, 1984).

Example 2.

For examples:

Normal	Abnormal	Gloss
a)      ɗaukoo	dakkoo	take from
b)     sarkii	kakkii	emir
c)      sarƙàa	kakkàa	chain

 

In example a), diphthong /au/ is the immediate vowel of the first consonant of the word;/au/ is assimilated by /k/ (voiceless velar stop),

In example b), /r/ (voiced alveolar trill) …to [k] (voiceless velar stop)

In example c), /s/ (voiceless velar fricative) is first substituted by /k/ and then assimilation of /r/ (voiced alveolar trill) to [k] (voiceless velar stop).

6.2 Affrication: is a situation in which stop features are involved, i.e stops or fricatives may be replaced by affricates. Hausa speakers with articulation challenges may produce /tʃ/ instead of /s’/ or /t/, e.g., tsami pronounced as cami.

 Example 3:

 

For examples:

Normal	Abnormal	Gloss
a)      gizò	gijò	trick star
b)     gidaa	jidaa	house
c)      fushii	ficii	Anger
d)     tsaamiyaa	caamiyaa	tamarind

 

The sound /z/ (voiced alveolar fricative) turns to [ʤ] (voiced post alveolar affricate) and the sound /g/ (voiced velar stop) turns to [ʤ] (voiced post alveolar affricate) in (c) we can see /ʃ/ (voiceless post alveolar fricative) turns to [ʧ] (voiceless post-alveolar affricate) and in (d) it’s the sound /S’/ (voiceless alveolar ejective) turns to [ʧ] (voiceless post alveolar affricate). All are examples of the process of affrication.

Example 4:

The sound /k/ (voiceless velar stop) turns to [ʧ] (voiceless post-alveolar affricate), therefore its an affrication process such as:

Normal	Abnormal	Gloss
a)      gunkìi	guncìi	idol
b)     kiifii	ciifii	fish
c)      waakee	waacee	beans

 

6.3 Lateralization/Liquidization: is a phonological process in which a non-lateral sound, usually the rhotic /r/ (voiced alveolar trill), is replaced by the lateral [l] (voiced alveolar lateral), allowing air to escape along the sides of the tongue instead of centrally. This substitution simplifies articulation, especially for children or speakers with speech sound disorders. The process can occur in word-initial, intervocalic, or word-final positions, and may sometimes involve gemination, where the lateral consonant is lengthened.

The general phonological rule can be represented as:

Example 5:

1. /r/ → [l] / V#

Normal	Abnormal	Gloss
a)      Gyaara	gyaalaa	repair
b)     Maara	maalaa	odd

 

The aforementioned words show Voiced Alveolar tril /r/ becomes voiced alveolar lateral [l] before a vowel at the end of the word.

2. /r/ → [l] /V-CV

Normal	Abnormal	Gloss
c)      Birìi	bilìi	monkey
d)     firi	filii	free

 

Here, Voiced Alveolar trill /r/ becomes voiced alveolar lateral [l] between a vowel, consonant and a vowel.

3. /r/ → [l] /V-V

Normal	Abnormal	Gloss
e)      bàrgoo	bàlgoo	blanket
f)       hàrshe	hàlshee	tongue
g)     càrbii	càlbii	counter

 

Voiced Alveolar trill /r/ becomes voiced alveolar lateral [l] intervocalically.

d.      /r/ → [l] /-#

Normal	Abnormal	Gloss
h)     bàabur	bàabul	motorcycle
i)       bàatir	bàtail	Battery

 

Voiced Alveolar trill /r/ becomes voiced alveolar lateral [l] at the end of the word.

e.       /r/ → [l] /#-

Normal	Abnormal	Gloss
j)        raanaa	laanaa	sun
k)     raariyaa	laaliyaa	siever
l)       riigaa	liigaa	dress/shirt

 

Voiced Alveolar tril /r/ becomes voiced alveolar lateral [l] at the beginning of the word.

In all these examples, the lateral [l] preserves the syllable structure and vowel quality while simplifying the production of the more complex trill /r/. Sometimes, as in gyaaraa → gyaalaa, the [l] is geminated, producing [ll] to maintain syllable weight. Overall, this pattern illustrates a systematic phonological simplification strategy in which the trill /r/ is replaced by the lateral [l] in multiple phonological environments, reflecting both positional and articulatory influences in child speech.

6.4 Germination: is a process whereby a sound is repeated under particular circumstances. Abnormal elongation or doubling of consonants occurs. A simple consonant may be pronounced longer than required, e.g., gida → gidda.

Example 6:

For instance:

Normal	Abnormal	Gloss
a)      gizo	dizzo	trick star
b)     haqoorii	hakkooyii	teeth
c)      riigaa	liigaa	dress/shirt

 

Here we noticed the germination of sound /z/  [z] and the one in (b) is /k/  [k] but before that the sound /q/ is deglottalized to [k] before it’s germinated. There are not many examples because of the nature of the subject, including inconsistency, which is a sign of the above rule.

6.5 Deletion: It is a process whereby a sound is removed from a sequence of sounds. It can be the omission of segments or syllables, particularly in complex clusters. A word like makaranta might become maranta (Hassan, 2009).

Example 7:

This indicates that the final vowels /ii/ and /aa/ in the word are deleted, particularly in the last syllable.

Normal	Abnormal	Gloss
a)      gwangwanii	gwangwaan	tin
b)     awaakii	awaak	goats
c)      àkwàati	àkwaàat	box
d)     madaraa	madaar	milk
e)      yawàa	yaaaw	plenty

 

CV  ǿ /# –

In these words, the subject tends to omit the final vowel of the last syllable. This is a common simplification strategy to reduce word length or syllable complexity.

In some cases, syllable deletion is accompanied by insertion or substitution of sounds, particularly in word-initial position. For example, the voiced alveolar nasal /n/ is inserted at the beginning of the word as a compensatory strategy as follows:

Normal	Abnormal	Gloss
a)      rìigaa	n’gigaa	gown
b)     bookitìi	ngokiki	bucket
c)      murfii	ngukii	cover

 

Aforementioned examples show deletion combined with substitution, where the initial syllable or consonant cluster is simplified and sometimes replaced by a nasal onset /n/ to maintain articulatory ease.

Deletion in child speech is a process where vowels, consonants, or entire syllables are omitted to simplify articulation. In the examples gwangwanii → gwangwaan, awaakii → awaak, and madaraa → madaar, the final vowels /ii/ and /aa/ are deleted, reducing syllable complexity. In more complex cases, such as rìigaa → n’gigaa and bookitìi → ngokiki, the child deletes initial consonants or syllables and inserts a voiced alveolar nasal /n/, reflecting a combination of deletion and substitution strategies. These processes are consistent with phonological simplification patterns in speech sound disorders, where children modify target forms to reduce articulatory effort while attempting to maintain intelligibility.

Example 8:

Normal	Abnormal	Gloss
a)      fàrantii	ʅàyaanii	plate
b)     farii	ʅayii	white
c)      geeroo	ʅeeyoo	millet
d)     goorò	ʅooyòo	kolanut
e)      gàarii	ʅàayii	flour

 

Deletions occur in the above examples; the first consonant was deleted in all the examples, therefore, the subjects tend to begin their speech with a glottal stop [ʅ]. The consonants involved in the deletion of the above examples are /Φ/ (voiceless bilabial fricative) and /g/ (voice velar stop).

6.0 Findings

The analysis of the data reveals that speech impairment does not occur randomly; rather, it manifests through systematic and recurring phonological patterns that affect segmental realisation and syllable structure. Findings from Example 1 (a–f) clearly demonstrate the occurrence of regressive assimilation, where a preceding consonant changes to become more like a following consonant. In these examples, the voiced alveolar trill /r/ and the voiced alveolar lateral /l/ assimilate to neighbouring sounds such as [g], [m], [f], [k], and [ʤ], resulting in uniform consonant features within words like bàrgoo → baggoo and murfii → muffii. This shows that the subjects tend to reduce articulatory complexity by harmonising adjacent consonants, especially in medial positions.

Further evidence of assimilation is found in Example 2 (a–c), where both vowels and consonants are affected. In ɗaukoo → dakkoo, the diphthong /au/ is assimilated by the following voiceless velar stop /k/, while in sarkii → kakkii and sarƙàa → kakkàa, the alveolar trill /r/ is assimilated to [k]. These occurrences indicate that assimilation in the speech of the subjects operates across segment types, involving both consonants and vowels.

The data in Examples 3 and 4 reveal consistent patterns of affrication, where stops and fricatives are replaced with affricates. In Example 3 (a–d), sounds such as /z/, /g/, /ʃ/, and /s’/ are realised as [ʤ] and [ʧ], as seen in gizò → gijò and tsaamiyaa → caamiyaa. Similarly, Example 4 (a–c) shows the velar stop /k/ changing to the affricate [ʧ] in vowel-rich environments (kiifii → ciifii, waakee → waacee). These occurrences suggest that affrication serves as a strategy to simplify articulatory transitions between stops and vowels.

Lateralisation (liquidization) is prominently observed in Example 5 (a–l), where the voiced alveolar trill /r/ is systematically replaced by the voiced alveolar lateral [l] across word-initial, intervocalic, and word-final positions. Words such as raanaa → laanaa, birii→bilii, and bàabur → bàabul illustrate that lateralisation is one of the most frequent processes in the data. In some instances, the lateral sound is geminated (gyaara → gyaalaa), indicating an attempt by the speakers to preserve syllable weight despite segmental substitution.

The process of gemination is further highlighted in Example 6 (a–b), where consonants such as /z/ and /k/ are abnormally lengthened, as in gizo → dizzo and haƙoorii → hakkooyii. These examples show that gemination may occur independently or in combination with other processes such as deglottalization, reflecting instability in consonant production among the subjects.

Deletion is another prominent feature of the data. Example 7 (a–e) demonstrates final vowel deletion, particularly of long vowels /ii/ and /aa/, resulting in forms such as gwangwanii → gwangwaan and madaraa → madaar. In Example 7 (f–h), deletion extends to entire syllables and is accompanied by initial nasal substitution, as seen in rìigaa → n’gigaa and bookitìi → ngokiki. These cases indicate that deletion often co-occurs with substitution as a compensatory strategy.

Finally, Example 8 (a–e) reveals initial consonant deletion, where sounds such as /f/ and /g/ are omitted and replaced by a glottal stop [ʔ], as observed in fàrantii → ʔàyaanii and geeroo → ʔeeyoo. This pattern shows that the subjects tend to avoid complex word-initial consonants by resorting to a glottal onset, further reducing articulatory effort.

In summary, the findings from Examples 1–8 confirm that speech impairment among Hausa speakers is characterised by systematic phonological simplification strategies, including regressive assimilation, affrication, lateralisation, gemination, and deletion. These processes often occur in combination, resulting in multiple substitutions within a single lexical item. The study underscores the importance of understanding these phonological patterns for effective speech therapy, linguistic description, and the development of culturally informed intervention strategies for Hausa-speaking populations.

7.0 Conclusion

This paper has examined speech impairment among Hausa speakers from a phonological perspective, with particular focus on the systematic processes that shape abnormal sound production. The findings explain clearly that speech impairment is not random or chaotic; rather, it is governed by identifiable and recurring phonological patterns that reflect simplification strategies within the sound system of Hausa.

The analysis revealed that processes such as regressive assimilation, affrication, lateralisation (liquidization), gemination, and deletion occur consistently in the speech of the impaired. These processes show that speakers with speech impairment tend to modify complex articulatory structures into simpler, more manageable forms. For instance, the frequent replacement of the trill /r/ with the lateral [l], the substitution of fricatives and stops with affricates, and the widespread deletion of final vowels and initial consonants all point to systematic phonological restructuring rather than isolated articulation errors.

Beyond findings, the study has important clinical and educational implications. Understanding the specific phonological processes common among Hausa speakers with speech impairment can guide speech therapists, special educators, and linguists in designing culturally and linguistically appropriate intervention strategies. Early diagnosis and targeted therapy that takess Hausa phonology into account will likely improve treatment outcomes and communication effectiveness for affected individuals. By highlighting how speech impairment reshapes Hausa phonology, the study expands knowledge of language variation under disordered conditions and opens pathways for further research in indigenous language contexts.

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