Citation: Abdullahi Dahiru Umar & Musa Ahmad Sani (2025). Religious and Cultural Identity Loss in Postcolonial Contexts: Reading Paradise and Bird Summons. Glob Acad J Humanit Soc Sci; Vol-7, Iss-5 pp- 216-228. https://doi.org/10.36348/gajhss.2025.v07i05.005
Religious and Cultural Identity Loss
in Postcolonial Contexts: Reading Paradise and Bird Summons
By
Abdullahi Dahiru Umar
Department of English and Literature
Federal University, Gusau, Nigeria
abdullahidumar@gmail.com
And
Musa Ahmad Sani
Department of Arts and Social Science Education,
Kaduna State University, Kaduna, Nigeria.
musa.ahmad@kasu.edu.ng
Abstract
This study explores how Leila
Aboulela's Bird Summons (2019) and Abdulrazak Gurnah's Paradise (1994) depict
the loss of religious and cultural identities. By using Deconstruction theory,
this study exposes the conflicts between essentialised religious and cultural
identities and the fluid, hybrid realities of the characters' lives, shattering
the binary oppositions that support the stories (Derrida 42). This study
reveals the power dynamics that influence identity building and draws attention
to the instabilities and contradictions present in the narratives by examining
how the texts depict the loss of conventional identities (Spivak 66).
Additionally, this study shows how the writers reclaim marginalised identities
and challenge prevailing discourses through the use of narrative strategies
(Bhabha 209). Finally, this study shows how these works' depictions of loss act
as a trigger for reassessing and rebuilding religious and cultural identities.
Keywords: Religious Identity, Cultural
Identity, Identity Loss, Postcolonialism, Marginalisation, Paradise, Bird
Summons
Introduction
An affluent and dynamic
totality is created by the intricate weaving of culture, religion, and personal
experience into the complicated fabric of identity. Culture offers the
fundamental framework for forming an identity because of its vast legacy of traditions,
rituals, and values. With its significant impact on moral standards, belief
systems, and spiritual practices, religion enriches the tapestry with richness
and complexity. Personal experience adds colour and texture to the fabric of
identity through its distinct fusion of memories, feelings, and experiences.
However, the fundamental fabric of identity is endangered when these threads
are cut or ripped by things like colonialism, migration, or social upheaval,
which results in a crisis of self and belonging. This trend is exquisitely
represented in Abdulrazak Gurnah's Paradise (1994) and Leila Aboulela's Bird
Summons (2019), two novels that expertly explore the complexity of
religious and cultural identity loss in the context of colonialism, globalization,
and diasporic experiences. The dynamic and iterative character of identity
development is highlighted by Stuart Hall's observation that "Identity is
not a fixed point, but a continuous process of negotiation and
re-definition" (Hall 16).
This paper intends to provide
light on how the loss of religious and cultural identities is portrayed in
these novels through a critical analysis, and how this depiction mirrors the
difficulties of identity construction in the postcolonial age. The depiction of
religious and cultural identity loss in Gurnah’s Paradise (1994) and
Aboulela’s Bird Summons (2019) will be analysed in depth in this study.
The paper looks at how Leila Aboulela and Abdurahman Gurnah's works depict the
intricacies of postcolonial identity. It examines how they depict the
dissolution of conventional identities, cultural fragmentation, and religious
disillusionment in particular, as well as the difficulties of re-establishing
one's identity in the face of tensions between spiritual syncretism and
religious orthodoxy, as well as between cultural legacy and hybridity.
This paper uses Deconstruction
theory to dissolve the binary oppositions that underpin the narratives, such as
religion versus spirituality, culture versus identity, and tradition versus
modernity (Derrida 42). The conflicts between essentialised religious and
cultural identities which are frequently based on longings for a bygone era and
the fluid, hybrid realities of the characters' experiences which are influenced
by the intricacies of colonialism, globalisation, and diasporic experiences
will be made clear by this deconstructive method. This paper will show how
Gurnah and Aboulela's books illustrate the intricacies of identity creation in
the postcolonial era, which is characterised by the interaction of history,
culture, and power, by highlighting these conflicts.
Background to the Study
The
deterioration of religious and cultural identities, a legacy of colonialism
that continues to influence the cultural, social, and economic environments of
postcolonial states, is examined in this study in relation to postcolonial
literature. Literature serves as a powerful tool in confronting social
realities and preserving collective memory, particularly in how it engages with
identity loss and cultural struggles (Sama and Sani 59). This paper intends to
provide light on the continuous struggles of people and communities to recover
and rebuild their identities in the wake of colonialism by analysing the
complex depictions of identity loss in postcolonial literature.
East
Africa's cultural and religious landscape, which serves as the setting for
Abdulrazak Gurnah's 1994 novel Paradise, has been significantly impacted by the
legacy of colonialism and the slave trade. During the late 19th-century
Scramble for Africa, European powers erased traditional ways of life and forced
alien values and beliefs on African civilisations by imposing their political,
economic, and cultural systems (Mudimbe 23). The social and cultural turmoil
brought on by the slave trade, which had already led to the loss of cultural
heritage and the division of groups, was exacerbated by this colonial
disturbance (Glassman 17). As Gobir and Sani observe, traces of slavery and its
modern repercussions continue to shape cultural narratives and reflect enduring
wounds within African societies (Gobir and Sani 15). The cultural and spiritual
identity of East Africa has thus been impacted for a long time by the
convergence of these historical influences.
According
to Gurnah, "The experience of colonialism is a profound one, and it has
shaped the way we think about ourselves and our place in the world"
(Gurnah 12). As people and groups continue to negotiate the challenges of
identity formation in the postcolonial age, this experience has permanently
altered the cultural and religious landscape of the region. Globalisation's
effects on local cultures and the complex dynamics of Islamic identity are
major issues in Aboulela's Bird Summons (2019), which is set in the Middle East
and North Africa. As governments attempted to secularise and Westernise
society, the region's modernisation efforts in the 20th century have created
tensions between Islamic principles and Western ideals, as well as between
traditional and modern ways of life (Al-Azmeh 34).
Aboulela's
Bird Summons provides an in-depth analysis of Islamic identity in the modern
world, highlighting the delicate intersections between faith and secularism,
tradition and modernity. These conflicts have been exacerbated by
globalisation, as Western cultural dominance and global capitalism increasingly
homogenise traditional cultures (Appadurai 27). Gurnah's Paradise (1994) and
Aboulela's Bird Summons (2019) both provide compelling examinations of identity
loss in the postcolonial era, which is characterised by globalisation,
colonialism, and cultural hybridity. Gurnah and Aboulela shed light on the
challenges faced by individuals and communities in creating new identities in
the face of conflicts between cultural legacy and hybridity, as well as between
religious orthodoxy and spiritual syncretism.
As
individuals and communities struggle to reconcile the loss of their religious
and cultural heritage, the novels depict the postcolonial subject as
fragmented, caught between the need to maintain traditional identities and the
need to create new ones in response to the fluid dynamics of the postcolonial
world (Bhabha 207). This split subjectivity is characterised by dislocation,
disorientation, and disidentity. By examining the narrative strategies and
approaches employed by Gurnah and Aboulela, the paper will demonstrate how
their novels provide both complex and nuanced depictions of the postcolonial
experience and powerful critiques of the dominant ideologies of colonialism and
globalisation.
Review
of Some Scholarly Works
Scholarly
works on these novels have analysed their representation of the African
diaspora, the complexities of cultural identity, and the impact of colonialism
and globalisation on individual lives. In her analysis of Paradise, Jones notes
that Gurnah's novel challenges the notion of a fixed identity, instead
highlighting the dynamic and multifaceted nature of individual experiences,
which are shaped by a complex web of power relations and social constructs
(Jones 145). Nazareth argues that the novel's protagonist, Yusuf, embodies the
complexities of cultural identity in the context of colonialism, highlighting
the tensions between tradition and modernity (Nazareth 123). Mama finds that
Gurnah's novel provides a critical examination of the impact of colonialism on
African societies, highlighting the ways in which colonialism disrupted
traditional social structures and created new forms of identity (Mama 167).
Afzal-Khan analyses the novel's representation of Muslim identity in the
context of colonialism, arguing that Gurnah's narrative challenges dominant
portrayals of Islam and instead offers a nuanced depiction of Muslim
experiences (Afzal-Khan 201). Khairallah's reading of the novel’s
representation of colonialism and its impact on African societies also
underscores how colonial power disrupted traditional communal structures and
imposed alien identities (Khairallah 145). In addition, research on
intra-religious tensions demonstrates how conflicts within faith communities
intensify crises of belonging, complicating identity formation in postcolonial
societies (Shehu and Sani 147). Similarly, Ghanem's examination of the novel's
use of magical realism underscores the tensions between tradition and
modernity, as well as the complexities of cultural identity in the context of
globalisation (Ghanem 167).
Bird
Summons has been analysed for its representation of the experiences of Muslim
women in the West. Chambers argues that Aboulela's novel challenges dominant
narratives of Muslim women’s lives, instead offering a nuanced and complex
portrayal of their experiences (Chambers 167). Moore contends that the novel's
use of magical realism serves to underscore the tensions between tradition and
modernity, as well as the complexities of cultural identity in the context of
globalisation (Moore 201). Radwan finds that Aboulela's novel provides a
critical examination of the impact of globalisation on Muslim women’s lives,
highlighting the ways in which globalisation has created new forms of identity
and belonging (Radwan 189). Cooke analyses the novel's representation of
Islamic spirituality in the context of globalisation, arguing that Aboulela
challenges dominant narratives of Islamic spirituality and instead offers a
more complex portrayal of Muslim experiences (Cooke 203).
Recent
scholarship on African cultural practices provides further insights into the
wider contexts in which these novels can be read. Sani and Ibrahim demonstrate
how processes of acculturation often reverse colonial assumptions, with host
cultures adopting and reshaping foreign influences in unexpected ways, creating
hybrid forms of belonging (Sani and Ibrahim 233). Similarly, Sani, Shehu, and
Bazango examine how communal reciprocity in Hausa societies has eroded under
pressures of modernity, resulting in social fragmentation and identity crises
that mirror the fractures represented in both Gurnah and Aboulela’s novels
(Sani, Shehu, and Bazango 106). In another study, Sani and Khalil highlight how
the cultural influence of Hausa films extends beyond entertainment, reshaping
communal practices and identity constructions (Sani and Khalil 78). Taken
together, these studies demonstrate that both Paradise and Bird Summons can be
understood as literary interventions into ongoing debates about the
transformation of identity in contexts of colonial disruption, globalisation,
and shifting cultural practices.
Abdulrazak
Gurnah as a Multicultural Fiction Writer
A renowned author of
multicultural fiction, is Abdulrazak Gurnah, whose writings provide a profound
perspective on the difficulties associated with cultural identification,
migration, and belonging. Gurnah was born in 1948 in Zanzibar, Tanzania, and
his writing has been greatly influenced by his personal experiences of cultural
displacement and migration (Gurnah 23). His works, including Paradise
(1994), Admiring Silence (1996), By the Sea (2001), are
distinguished by their intricate depictions of varied identities, histories,
and experiences.
As his characters negotiate the
difficulties of identity construction in the context of colonialism, migration,
and globalisation, Gurnah's texts frequently depicts the conflicts between
cultural inheritance and cultural hybridity (Bhabha 207). For instance, Yusuf,
the main character in Gurnah's Paradise, is a young Zanzibari boy who is
sold into slavery and sets off on a voyage that takes him to the Middle East
and Europe across the Indian Ocean (Gurnah, Paradise 12). Gurnah examines the
intricacies of cultural identity and belonging in the backdrop of slavery and
colonialism in connection with Yusuf's story. For its sensitive and sympathetic
depiction of various identities and experiences, Gurnah's art has received high
appreciation.
According to Nasta,
"Gurnah's fiction offers a nuanced exploration of the complexities of
cultural identity and belonging, as well as a powerful critique of the dominant
discourses of colonialism and nationalism" (Nasta 145). Through his writings,
Gurnah has significantly influenced the literary landscape of current
multicultural fiction and the representation of multicultural identities and
experiences. One may classify Gurnah as a religious fiction writer whose
writings provide a comprehensive exploration of the intricacies of
spirituality, faith, and religious identity. This phrase describes a writer who
uses narrative strategies to investigate the intersections between religion,
culture, and identity in their writing, frequently focusing on religious themes,
beliefs, and practices (Detweiler 12).
The intricacies of Islamic
identity and faith in the context of colonialism, migration, and globalisation
are explored in Gurnah's novels, including Paradise (1994) and Pilgrims
Way (1988), which are distinguished by their careful and sympathetic
depictions of Muslim characters and communities (Gurnah 15). The works of
Gurnah have significantly enriched the literary representation of Muslim
identities and experiences. As Malak astutely observes, "Gurnah's fiction
offers a nuanced exploration of the complexities of Islamic identity and faith,
and offers a powerful critique of the dominant discourses of Orientalism and
Islamophobia" (Malak 122). By delving into the intricacies of Islamic
identity and faith, Gurnah's writings provide a vital counter-narrative to
prevailing stereotypes and misconceptions. Moreover, his contributions have
substantially impacted the literary landscape of contemporary religious
fiction, fostering a more inclusive and diverse representation of Muslim voices
and experiences.
The Writings of Leila Aboulela
One could describe Leila Aboulela as a religious fiction writer whose
writings provide a sophisticated examination of the intricacies of Islamic
identity, religion, and spirituality. This phrase describes a writer who uses
narrative strategies to investigate the intersections between religion,
culture, and identity in their writing, frequently focusing on religious
themes, beliefs, and practices (Detweiler 12). In addition to exploring the
complexities of Islamic identity and faith in the context of globalisation,
migration, and cultural hybridity, Aboulela's novels, including The
Translator (1999), Minaret (2005), and The Kindness of Enemies
(2015), are distinguished by their careful and sympathetic depictions of Muslim
characters and communities (Aboulela 15).
As her characters confront the
difficulties of faith and identity in the face of cultural hybridity and
globalisation, Aboulela examines the conflicts between traditional faith and
spiritual syncretism in her literature (Bhabha 207). For instance, Sammar, the
main character in Aboulela's The Translator, is a young Muslim woman who
works as a translator in Scotland and finds it difficult to balance her
cultural identity and faith (Aboulela 20). Aboulela examines the intricacies of
Islamic identity and faith in light of migration, globalisation, and cultural
hybridity via Sammar's experience.
According to Malak,
"Aboulela's fiction offers a powerful critique of the dominant discourses
of Orientalism and Islamophobia, and provides a sensitive exploration of the
complexities of Islamic identity and faith" (Malak 123). As Aboulela has significantly
influenced the genres of contemporary religious fiction and the representation
of Muslim identities and experiences in literature through her work. As a
writer of cultural fiction, Aboulela's writings provide a thorough exploration
of the customs, cultural history, and experiences of Muslim communities in the
Middle East, Sudan, and Scotland. Using narrative strategies to investigate the
interconnections between culture, identity, and dynamics of power, this phrase
refers to a novelist who focusses on the cultural history, customs, and
experiences of a certain community or group (Ashcroft 12).
Salma, the protagonist of
Aboulela's Bird Summons, is a young Muslim woman of Sudanese descent,
living in Scotland. As she embarks on a spiritual and self-discovery journey in
the breathtaking Scottish Highlands, she grapples with the complexities of
Muslim identity in a postcolonial world. Through her experiences, Aboulela
explores the lingering effects of colonialism, including cultural displacement,
identity fragmentation, and the tensions between tradition and modernity. As
Salma navigates the intersections of her faith, cultural heritage, and personal
aspirations, she undertakes a poignant and introspective quest for
self-definition, belonging, and spiritual renewal (Aboulela 20).
Theoretical Framework
Deconstruction theory offers a
framework for analysing literary works, such as Gurnah's Paradise (1994)
and Aboulela's Bird Summons (2019), by contesting prevailing discourses
and power structures that shape our perception of reality. This theory exposes
the intricacies and ambiguities of literary texts by subverting dichotomous
oppositions, questioning authorial intent, and examining the function of
language (Derrida 12, 15). By doing so, deconstruction theory reveals the
intricate network of meanings and interpretations that underpin literary texts,
demonstrating that all texts are fundamentally unstable and open to multiple
interpretations (Spivak 25, Barthes 10, Said 123). In the context of
postcolonial literature, deconstruction theory highlights the loss of religious
and cultural identities, as seen in Paradise and Bird Summons.
Through the protagonists' journeys, Yusuf and Salma, respectively, Gurnah and
Aboulela dismantle the idea of stable or essential identities, instead
revealing the dynamic and complex process of identity construction within the
frameworks of globalization, slavery, colonialism, migration, and cultural
hybridity (Gurnah 15, Aboulela 20, Bhabha 207, Fanon 145). Ultimately, these
novels' deconstruction of religious and cultural identities serves as a
reflection of the postcolonial condition, where individuals and groups must
navigate the challenges of forming identities in the face of globalization,
colonialism, and cultural hybridity.
Brief Introduction of Paradise
The concept of paradise is a
ubiquitous theme in religious texts, described as a realm of serenity,
innocence, joy, and beauty that surpasses earthly standards (Qur'an 32:17;
Bible, Revelation 21:4). In addition to being a place of divine favor, paradise
has been characterized throughout literature as a symbol of fairness, kindness,
goodness, and righteousness (Khalifa 23; Esposito 12). It is often depicted as
the ultimate reward for the righteous, a prize that every virtuous individual
strives for in the hereafter (Bukhari 145; Muslim 240).
The narrative's protagonist,
Yusuf, embodies the complexities of identity formation, as he navigates the
power dynamics of colonialism and slavery (Gurnah 12). Yusuf's journey begins
at the age of twelve, when he is coerced into leaving his home to work for
Aziz, a figure who claims to be his uncle but is, in fact, an exploiter of the
underprivileged (Gurnah 15). This false narrative of kinship serves as a tool
of oppression, highlighting the ways in which language and relationships can be
manipulated to maintain power over others (Derrida 23). Yusuf's encounter with
Khalil, who reveals the truth about Aziz's intentions, underscores the
instability of identity and the ways in which it can be shaped and reshaped by
external forces (Gurnah 27). Through this narrative, Gurnah challenges the
notion of a fixed or essential identity, instead revealing the complex web of
power relations and social constructs that shape individual experiences (Said
145).
Yusuf's journey with Mr. Aziz's
caravan serves as a metaphor for the destabilization of identity and the
fragmentation of cultural narratives (Gurnah 45). As Yusuf traverses the Congo
Basin and Central Africa, he encounters a diverse array of African cultures,
highlighting the complexities of cultural identity and challenging the notion
of a homogeneous African experience (Gurnah 56). Through Yusuf's experiences,
Gurnah subverts the romanticized notion of a pre-colonial African utopia,
instead revealing a complex web of social, cultural, and economic power
dynamics (Derrida 123). The narrative underscores the idea that identity is
always already diasporic, shaped by the intersections of multiple cultures,
histories, and power structures (Bhabha 141). Furthermore, Yusuf's infatuation
with Amina, Mr. Aziz's young wife, serves as a catalyst for exploring the
tensions between desire, power, and cultural identity (Gurnah 78). Ultimately,
Gurnah's narrative challenges the notion of a fixed or essential identity, instead
revealing the complex, hybridized nature of cultural identity in the
postcolonial context (Said 167).
Gurnah's Paradise
subverts the traditional notion of a diasporic narrative, instead employing
satire to critique the harsh realities of the protagonist's home community on
the East African Coast (Gurnah 12). The novel's dystopian portrayal of Uncle
Aziz's realm and the kingdom of Chatu challenges the romanticized notion of a
pre-colonial African utopia, instead revealing a complex web of power dynamics
and social hierarchies (Gurnah 45). This narrative strategy is reminiscent of
Joseph Conrad's Heart of Darkness and Milton's Paradise Lost,
both of which employ dystopian themes to critique the notion of a paradise or
utopia (Conrad 23; Milton 12). However, Gurnah's novel also engages with the
Islamic concept of paradise, or "Jannah," which is described in the
Quran as a "lofty" and "great kingdom" (Qur'an 69:22,
76:20). By juxtaposing the idealized notion of paradise with the harsh
realities of the protagonist's experiences, Gurnah highlights the tensions
between the imagined and the real, challenging the notion of a fixed or
essential identity (Derrida 123).
More so, the text is entirely
enclosed, evoking the wall of the biblical or Islamic paradise. Uncle Aziz's
home has a garden that is divided into four sections, each of which has a pool
in the middle and four water channels that flow off it in all four directions,
evoking the biblical paradise. The quadrants were planted with bushes and
trees. There were pomegranates, oranges, lilies, and other unusual and lovely
fruits and flowers.
Beyond the pool, towards the
top end of the garden, the ground rose into a terrace planted with poppies,
yellow roses and jasmine, scattered to resemble natural growth. Yusuf dreamt
that at night the fragrance rose into the air and turned him dizzy. In his
rapture he thought he heard music. (Gurnah 43)
Amina's
narrative constitutes a scathing critique of the utopian paradigm of paradise,
laying bare the insidious mechanisms of patriarchal oppression and exploitation
that undergird her experiences (Gurnah 207). The erasure of Amina's agency and
autonomy is exemplified by her coerced marriage to Uncle Aziz, which
precipitates the destruction of her innocence and the exploitation of her
vulnerability (Gurnah 207). This narrative trope serves to foreground the
dialectical tensions between the idealized construct of paradise and the
quotidian realities of women's lives within patriarchal societies, thereby
subverting the notion of a harmonious and egalitarian social order (Derrida
145). Such gender and marital controversies are common in African cultures
(Tsaure and Sani).
Amina's
lamentation, "I have my life at least," is infused with a sense of
irony and despair, underscoring the existential vacuity and meaninglessness
that characterize her existence (Gurnah 228-229). Through Amina's narrative,
Gurnah problematizes the notion of a fixed or essential identity, instead
revealing the complex interstices of power dynamics and social constructs that
shape individual experiences and subjectivities (Said 167). Furthermore,
Amina's acquiescence to her fate serves as a commentary on the ways in which
societal expectations and norms can circumscribe individual agency and
autonomy, thereby reinforcing the hegemonic structures of patriarchal power
(Bhabha 123).
Loss
of Religious and Cultural Identities in Paradise
According to the deconstruction
theory, which holds that all texts are fundamentally erratic and open to
various readings, Gurnah’s Paradise (1994) exhibits the loss of
religious identities (Derrida 12). Deconstruction theory holds that identities
are created and destroyed through language and culture, and that the idea of a
stable or fundamental religious identity is a fiction (Spivak 25). As
colonialism, slavery, and globalisation have upended traditional lifestyles and
imposed new forms of cultural and religious identity, Gurnah in Paradise
symbolises the loss of religious identity (Gurnah 15).
Through the protagonist, Yusuf,
Gurnah explores the complexities of religious identity formation in the context
of colonialism and globalisation. Yusuf's journey from his home in Zanzibar to
the Middle East and Europe is a metaphor for the displacement and dislocation
of traditional cultures and identities (Gurnah 20). As Yusuf navigates the
complexities of colonialism and slavery, he is forced to confront the loss of
his traditional cultural and religious identity, and to negotiate a new sense
of self in the face of overwhelming cultural and economic forces (Gurnah 25).
It is possible to interpret
Gurnah's depiction of the loss of religious identity in Paradise as a critique
of the idea of a fixed or essential person. According to Homi K. Bhabha,
"the self is a site of multiple and contradictory identities, which are
constantly in the process of being constructed and deconstructed"
(Bhabha). Gurnah is used in Paradise to symbolise the self as a location
of conflicting and numerous identities that are continually being created and
dismantled by language, culture, and power relations. Through Yusuf's
experiences in the mosque, where he tries to reconcile his faith with the
brutal reality of slavery and colonialism, the novel illustrates the loss of
religious identity (Gurnah 45). The complexity of "Islam as a discursive
tradition," as Talal Asad has suggested, may be seen in this battle (Asad
20). Asad contends that Islamic identities are open to many interpretations and
contestations since they are created and negotiated through language and
culture (Asad 25).
Yusuf's experiences at the
mosque in Paradise serve as a reminder of how language, culture, and power
relations connect to create and negotiate Islamic identities (Gurnah 50).
Gurnah's text questions the prevailing discourses of Islam by illustrating the
intricacies of Islamic identity construction, underscoring the need for a
better comprehension of Islamic identities and cultures (Asad 30).
Gurnah uses Yusuf's connection
with his friend Khalil, who has embraced European ideals and habits, to
illustrate the conflict between traditional cultural practices and modernity
(Gurnah 67). According to Bhabha, this tension is an expression of the idea of
"hybridity," which is a feature of postcolonial civilisations (Bhabha
207). Bhabha defines hybridity as the manner in which colonised cultures create
new cultural forms and practices that are neither wholly traditional nor wholly
modern in order to challenge and disrupt dominant discourses (Bhabha 212).
Because Khalil's embrace of
European rituals and values is both a form of cultural resistance and a
representation of the dominant narrative of colonialism, Yusuf and Khalil's
relationship in Paradise serves as an example of the hybridity of postcolonial
cultures (Gurnah 70). Gurnah's work exposes the agency and inventiveness of
postcolonial cultures while challenging the prevailing ideologies of
colonialism by illustrating the complexity of hybridity (Bhabha 220).
Through Yusuf's experiences
traversing strange cultural norms and behaviours in the Middle East and Europe,
the story delves into the issue of cultural displacement (Gurnah 101).
According to Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak, this relocation is an example of how
dominant discourses marginalise and mute subaltern voices (Spivak 25). Spivak
argues that the subaltern is a subject position that is created by dominant
discourses, which is why those discourses mute and marginalise them (Spivak
30).
Yusuf's experiences in the
Middle East and Europe serve as an example in Paradise of how dominant
discourses stifle and marginalise subaltern voices, resulting in cultural
displacement and identity disintegration (Gurnah 105). Gurnah's book
underscores the need for a more nuanced understanding of the realities of
marginalised people by presenting the experiences of a subaltern subject like
Yusuf, challenging the prevailing ideologies of colonialism and imperialism
(Spivak 35). Through Yusuf's battles with his faith, especially in light of the
cruel treatment of slaves and the dishonesty of colonial officials, Gurnah
illustrates the loss of religious identity (Gurnah 135). It is possible to see
this conflict as an expression of the "politics of piety," which Saba
Mahmood has maintained is a crucial component in the development of an Islamic
identity (Mahmood 25). Mahmood defines the politics of piety as the ways in
which language, culture, and power relations are used to create and negotiate
Islamic identities (Mahmood 30).
In the face of colonialism and
slavery, Yusuf's battles with his faith serve as an example of how the politics
of piety function to mould Islamic identities (Gurnah 140). Gurnah's text
exposes the agency and inventiveness of Muslim communities in navigating their
religious identities while also challenging the prevailing ideologies of
colonialism by illustrating the complexity of Islamic identity construction
(Mahmood 35). Through Yusuf's relationship with his love interest, Aziz, who
stands for a more contemporary and Westernised way of life, the novel
emphasises the conflict between cultural tradition and modernity (Gurnah 167).
One way to interpret this conflict is as an expression of the idea of
"différance," which Jacques Derrida has maintained is essential to
the process of forming one's identity (Derrida 12). Derrida defines différance
as the ways in which identities are not fixed or stable but rather are always
in a state of flux and negotiation (Derrida 15).
As Yusuf deals the unique
characteristics of both contemporary Westernised norms and ancient cultural
practices, his relationship with Aziz serves as an example of the diversity of
cultural identity (Gurnah 170). Gurnah's book questions the notion of fixed
cultural identities and emphasises the subtleties and complexity of identity
development in the context of colonialism and globalisation by illustrating the
conflict between cultural tradition and modernity (Derrida 20). Through Yusuf's
interactions with other cultural groups, such as Arabs, Indians, and Europeans,
Gurnah examines the issue of cultural identity, emphasising the subtleties and
complexity of forming a cultural identity (Gurnah 201). The idea of
"performativity," which Butler has maintained is a crucial component
of identity development, may be seen in this investigation (Butler 15).
Performativity, according to Butler, is the process by which identities are
built and acted through language and culture, making them open to various
interpretations and contestations (Butler 20).
Brief Introduction of Bird
Summons
The story of Bird Summons
is told from the perspectives of three women who arrange a trip to the Scottish
Highlands to learn more about the history of Islam in Britain and to visit the
grave of Lady Evelyn Cobbold, the first British Muslim woman to make the
pilgrimage to Mecca in her honour. There are seventeen chapters in the book,
along with an author's note. Chapter one is told in the past tense in the third
person about an Arab Muslim woman named Salma from Egypt who tries to persuade
Moni and Iman to go see Lady Evely Cobbold because Cobbold
Was
a woman like us, a wife and a grandmother. Worshipped as we worshipped, though
she kept her own culture, wore Edwardian fashion, shot deer and left
instructions for bagpipes to be played at her funeral. She is the mother of
Scottish Islam, and we need her as our role model. (Aboulela 2)
According to Aboulela, with the
exception of a few minor cultural practices, rituals, life styles, and
traditions that set the many countries and cultures apart, Islamic religion and
culture are interwoven. Additionally, Islam's culture is inclusive, humanitarian,
tolerant, and non-discriminatory; it embraces diversity and does not exclude
any one culture. All cultures, races, and languages are included in the
transcendental, non-regional Islamic identity. Members of the local Arab
Speaking Muslim Women's Group, the three travelling companions Salma, Moni, and
Iman are Muslim immigrants living in Britain. They decide to travel to the
Scottish Highlands both alone and together, saying, "We will accomplish
our goal and read Fatiha at Lady Evelyn's grave" (Aboulela 14). Moni, a
Sudanese woman, quits her banking job to care for her son Adam, who has severe
cerebral palsy, without the assistance of her uncaring husband. He wants her
and Adam to move to Saudi Arabia.
Iman, a Syrian refugee, has had
numerous spouses but none of them have provided for her. Her current husband
was killed by police during the first uprising against Assad, and she now
aspires to rule her own home and bring her mother from Syria. Salma, a native
of Egypt, has begun messaging her ex-fiance in Egypt. She is married to a
Scottish man. They all share the goal of personal development of consciousness
and self-reliance, which is "a necessity, a grab for freedom from
pain" (Aboulela 32). Each of them has a unique experience, struggle, and
dilemma. Salma, an Egyptian immigrant, also feels cut off from her husband, her
adopted children, and British society because "his people would really
believe that she wasn't one of them, that she wasn't British enough"
(Aboulela 42). In this sense, Salma feels that despite being married to a
Scottish guy and having Scottish children, she is not welcomed by his people.
This demonstrates how her identity is eroding, marginalised, and confined to a
transitional state. Salma's struggle is with cultural marginalisation due to
racial, religious, and cultural differences; "the cultural differences did
become a problem for them" (Aboulela 107).
The feeling of being an
outsider or foreigner, as demonstrated by Vijay Agnew, "can make the
individual feel alienated and heighten feelings of sadness, nostalgia, and
create a longing for home" (Vijay 42). Her identity thus vacillates
between exclusion and inclusion, assimilation and alienation, between not home
and home. Salma also alternates between her want for freedom and
self-realization, her commitment to her husband and kids, and her yearning for
her hometown through texts to her ex-lover. “She would then feel that they were
his children, and not hers. She was the outsider, the foreign wife, and they
were one unit” (Aboulela 41). Salma feels denial, alienation, and oddity, and
she finds it difficult to adapt her identity to fit her new culture. As a
result of homogenisation, exclusion, and diversification, Salma's identity is
disjointed and inconsistent. According to Hall,
It accepts that identities are
never unified and, in late modern times, increasingly fragmented and fractured;
never singular but multiply constructed across different, often intersecting
and antagonistic, discourses, practices and positions. They are subject to a
radical historicization, and are constantly in the process of change and
transformation. (Hall& Paul 4)
Due to the war and the Syrian
people's revolt against Assad, Iman is a refugee from Syria. She lives
comfortably after leaving her homeland in search of a better and new life. All
of her family members are dispersed around various locations, and she is unable
to bring her mother to reside in Britain. "She found herself thinking of
siblings and her village, the way it changed during the war" (Aboulela 52)
reflects her longing for her home, family, and community. Iman experiences
loneliness, homesickness, loneliness, loss of identity, and anxiety about her
safety in a foreign nation and culture. She doesn't want to think about the
devastation caused by war or the fading memories of her former existence.
War should stay out of here.
Shaking windows, wailing women, burnt skin…. Blood that was not menstrual,
softness that was damaged flesh, stillness that was not sleep but death. She
wishes she could wash her mind of all these things. She breathed in the smell
of the garden, touched the flowers. This was the present, and she was here
inside it. (Aboulela 69)
Iman's emotional landscape is
defined by a profound sense of longing for her mother and homeland, yet she
remains disconnected from the traumatic realities of war and her past. Her
journey is marked by a quest for direction, identity, and self-discovery, as
she seeks to reconcile her grief, anxiety, and fear about the future. As she
navigates the complexities of her experience, Iman endeavours to distil the
essence of life, transcending cultural boundaries to preserve her unique
identity and coherence. Her struggle to come to terms with the painful
conflicts of her memories and experiences is a testament to her resilience, as
she resists the all-consuming forces of anger, torture, and depression that
threaten to fragment her sense of self.
She was in Britain now and
there were choices. More choices than watching daytime TV or children’s movies.
She could do this or that, be this or that. To know, to set herself on the
right track, to strive, to achieve. One step at a time. (Aboulela 170)
Through her diasporic spatial
journey, Salma moves from the traumatic limitations and sophistications of her
presence and being to a place where, fully conscious of the freedom of the
self, a revival, and the emancipation of the individual, "I have changed.
I do want to stand on my own feet" (Aboulela 178). In addition, Aboulela
insists on her character Iman's freedom of choice and her ability to decide
whether or not to cover her head with a hijab. Aboulela is a diasporic voice,
stresses on the freedom of choice and existentialism of Arab females in home
countries and diaspora, “Lady Evelyn did not wear the Hijab. She did when she
went on pilgrimage” (Aboulela 185). She highlights the spiritual essence of
religion and the true femininity that covers the human soul. Another point is
that Aboulela does not proclaim that hijab is a symbol of unjustness and
patriarchal domination over women, it is a personal choice and freedom, depends
on the individual spiritual satisfaction.
Moni, a Sudanese lady, is the
third in-between voice. She dedicates her life to her deformed son, Adam, and
forbids her husband, Murtada, who is utterly uncaring and estranged from both
his wife and his defective son, from accompanying him to Saudi Arabia. Moni
declines on the grounds that her son won't receive the same kind of medical
treatment as he does in Britain. Moni reiterates, "No, I won't leave this
country" (Aboulela 281). Moni's attempts to reconcile her identity,
autonomy, and existentialism as a human being are the foundation of her
dissatisfaction. "She wouldn't get that from anyone in Saudi Arabia"
(Aboulela 27).
In essence, Moni chooses to
leave her inner prison and undergoes a sense of change and metamorphosis,
"to step away from herself and her problems. To be more than a mother of a
disabled child" (Aboulela 261). Moni has led a struggle for her rebirth
and metamorphosis; she wants to be recognised, feels confused, distracted,
stressed, and uncomfortable with her identity, keeps running away from her
circumstances, and no longer wants to be ashamed of her disabled son and
believes Adam should not be a burden on her. Every one of them was
self-conscious, mindful of her repaired body, and aware of how good it felt to
be whole, to be upright. Moni, as a traveller, seeks spiritual freedom,
guidance, and independence. How wonderful it was to be balanced, to have a tongue
that could speak, and to have a clear head (Aboulela 267). As a result, Moni
establishes a place for healing and adjustment; she gains the courage to
confront the difficulties of forming her identity in a new environment,
culture, and society.
The transformative journeys of
Moni, Iman, and Salma are a testament to the human capacity for growth,
self-discovery, and resilience. As they navigate the complexities of their
lives, they undergo a profound metamorphosis, shedding the burdens that once
weighed them down. Moni's newfound confidence and self-assurance, Iman's
blossoming into a fully realized person, and Salma's embodied strength
(Aboulela 200) are all emblematic of the transformative power of
self-reflection and perseverance. Ultimately, their travels, both physical and
introspective, lead them to a deeper understanding of themselves and their
places within the world. This process of transformation and self-reinvention is
characteristic of diaspora identities, which, as Hall notes, are continually
"produced and reproduced anew, through transformation and difference"
(Hall 235). Through their experiences, Moni, Iman, and Salma embody the
complex, dynamic nature of identity formation in the diaspora.
To bring about an intellectual
and spiritual shift in the individual's consciousness, Aboulela uses a
metaphorical voyage. In this way, Bird Summons' diasporic figures have
at last fled the enigmatic matrix of being and becoming, within and outside,
social dissonance, and identity uncertainties. The three protagonists are
released from the constraints of societal, religious, and cultural norms at the
conclusion of their journey. They have opened a new personal space of
identification, spiritual transformation, and metamorphosis; they have adapted
new spaces of identity, self-understanding, and self-reconciliation; and they
have made sense of the world and themselves.
Loss of Religious and Cultural
Identities in Bird Summons
An in-depth analysis of Leila
Aboulela's novel Bird Summons uncovers the intricate layers of
dislocation and diaspora that permeate the narrative. The story intricately
follows the lives of three female protagonists Iman, Salma, and Moni who embark
on a significant journey to a new environment that challenges their established
identities. Throughout their experience, they confront various forms of
dislocation: physical, individual, cultural, and emotional (Aboulela 12-15).
The three female protagonists of the text Salma, Moni, and Iman state from the
outset that they wish to leave the city. They are all other travellers who have
been called by fate to make the journey, yet they are not travelling together.
Salma is genuinely interested in going to Lady Evelyn's grave. All Iman desires
is to be with Salma. Then there is Moni, who is concerned about the amount of
walking required but wants to accompany Salma and Moni (Aboulela 20).
After the nineteenth century,
colonisation and imperialism heightened Arab anxiety towards the West (Dhabab
101). Western practices have inspired many Arab intellectuals to follow suit
(Dhabab 101). Dhabab claims that Arabs frequently believe the West is more
knowledgeable than the East, which makes them choose to live in the West in
order to gain strength and authority (Dhabab 209). Ahmed notes that Arabs are
enthralled with Western modernity, its people, and its way of life,
demonstrating the pervasiveness of this fascination with the West (Ahmed 2010).
According to Ahmed (Ahmed 30), Arab women are more likely to imitate Western
women in terms of education, thinking, and assertiveness. In a similar vein,
Dhabab remarks that Arab women frequently idealise Western women because they
believe they are better educated and have more powerful personalities (Dhabab
212). But it is important to recognise that some Arabs have a bad opinion of
the United States because of its backing of Israel and occupation of Iraq, which
makes them believe that the country is "a repressive world power" and
"hostile to the reactionary legitimate aspirations of small nations in the
world" (El-Enany 154).
One of the things that makes
Salma feel inferior to her husband and children is that she has no control over
them; she claims that the more "they grew away from her," the more
"they became British and less a piece of her" (Aboulela 8). This is
because they are supported by their British father and are allowed to pursue
their own beliefs. One example of this is Selma's daughter, who, after failing
to fulfil her dream of studying medicine, declines an offer to do so and
chooses to pursue sports science instead (Aboulela 8). This is what makes Salma
think about her coworker Amir and what may have been. She can't stop thinking
about the different life she could have had, one in which she was respected and
treated equally. This causes her to contemplate what she could have had because
she feels like a "foreigner" to her husband and kids (Aboulela 41-42). She answers Amir's texts
for this reason. She believes that rather than being different, he is the same
as her. This serves as a kind of retreat from her life in the West as a result.
Even Moni and Iman believe that because Salma is married to a Scottish man, she
endures more hardship than they do.
Salma feels valued and superior
to Amir. He assures her that she will always be viewed as a doctor in his eyes
and that her exams are legitimate. She is in the wrong country, which is the
main point (Aboulela 158). Additionally, he assures her that there is still
time to retake the examinations and persistently urges her to do so (Aboulela
129). She links to the past (Aboulela 134), and
anytime she chooses to stop sending Amir messages, she changes her mind because
of how she feels when she is with him (Aboulela 70). She moved to Moni and has
never been apart from her son, Adam, who has severe cerebral palsy (Aboulela
4-5). She considers leaving Adam in the nursery, remaining with him there, and
assisting the nurses with the other kids because she is so exhausted from
caring for him. She chooses to travel with Salma since, for the time being, she
needs time for herself (Aboulela 6-8). Moni also experiences internal conflict
as she must decide between her son and his medical care and Murtada, her
husband and Adam's father. Murtada works in Saudi Arabia, but her son requires
special care that cannot be found there, and Moni believes that the West is
better for her and her son. In fact, when speaking with Murtada over the phone,
she tells him, "Here is the best place for Adam. Here is where he's
getting the right treatment; he might even go to a special school"
(Aboulela 23-24). Mona uses the adverb "here" to refer to Britain
(and the West).
Aboulela depicts the severe
animosity that exists between Moni and her spouse. Initially, it appears like
Murtada completely disregards the fact that his crippled son is a natural part
of his society. This was explained by the way Murtada's relatives treated her
and her son; they were cruel to Adam, blaming her and feeling sorry for her
because she was unhappy. After that, she had to keep him hidden in her chamber
from prying eyes (Aboulela 26). Murtada is unable to remain in Britain at the
same time since he is unable to find employment as a foreigner. When he
addresses Moni, he says:
It’s that easy, is it? And even
if I do get a job as I had before, why live where I’m not wanted? Here I come
and go as I like without ever having to justify myself. On Fridays wear
jellabiya and saunter to the mosque in my slippers. There is no pressure to
prove anything. I do my work and get paid, no nonsense (Aboulela 26).
Murtada, who emphasises that
Arabs and Muslims face discrimination due to their clothing choices, asks Moni,
"Where's your pride, Moni? You're not wanted in Britain. People see you as
a leech benefiting from the free health system." This illustrates how
Aboulela, through Murtada, reflects the issue of prejudice against Arabs and
Muslims in particular as well as discrimination in the West in general
(Aboulela 26). Murtada talks about the issues that Arabs and Muslims encounter
in the West, such as Islamophobia, prejudice, joblessness, and raising kids in
non-Muslim neighbourhoods. Arabs and Muslims are generally denied the same
rights and overall sense of well-being as Westerners, according to Ismael &
Ismael (2010) (p. 197). They continue to demand the same respect and
recognition as other Westerners (Idriss and Abbas 21). Similarly, Santesso
(2017) notes that prejudice and discrimination against Arabs and Muslims stem
from Westerners' preconceived notions about them, particularly in the wake of
9/11 and 7/7.
However, Moni understands that
the Arab world has a different perspective on disabled people and that her son
might not have access to the same care and support systems that are available
in Britain (or any other Western nation, for that matter). She wishes to remain
in Britain for this reason. This is evident when she tells Murtada that Adam
won't receive anything in Saudi Arabia, including massage and cognitive therapy
(Aboulela 25). Moni envisions herself in Saudi Arabia dealing with issues like
not being able to take Adam with her and not having wheelchair access (Aboulela
27). She constantly hopes that a miracle will occur and that Adam will be able
to walk. Although she occasionally indulged in illusions, she firmly feels that
his illness was a test of her faith (Aboulela 32). This explains why, when
learning that the young boy's name is Adam, she becomes attracted to him. She
treats him like a son, waiting for him constantly and keeping an eye on his
every step. She knew him from their time together in the woods before they went
to the cemetery (Aboulela 96).
It is implied in the text that
Moni's interaction with Adam acts as a trigger for her transition (Aboulela
217). This interaction might be interpreted as an example of the supplement, a
term Derrida coined to explain how outside influences can alter and reshape the
self (Derrida 145). In this instance, Moni's current identity is upended by
Adam's presence, enabling her to move beyond her prior personas and take on a
new one. Moreover, it is possible to interpret Moni's metamorphosis as a kind
of defiance against the expectations society has of her as a mother and wife.
She regains her feeling of agency and autonomy by rejecting the constrictive
rules that control her existence, as symbolised by her transformation into a
childlike ball (Aboulela 233). The deconstructionist idea that writings
frequently have subversive components that contradict prevailing beliefs is
consistent with this approach (Derrida 161).
Iman's human identity,
according to the book, was only a "costume," a societal construct
that hid who she really was (Aboulela 233). The deconstructionist notion that
identity is performative and that our perception of ourselves is shaped by social
norms and expectations is consistent with this approach (Butler 176).
Therefore, it is possible to see Iman's metamorphosis as a rejection of these
social norms, enabling her to accept a more flexible, ambiguous identity.
According to the text, Salma's shift into a doormat is the consequence of her
cooperation with Amir's power dynamics, where she obediently submits to his
authority (Aboulela 246). The deconstructionist notion that power is exercised
not just by force but also by deceptive means of manipulation and consent is
consistent with this interpretation (Foucault 122). Thus, Salma's metamorphosis
might be interpreted as an expression of the intricate power relationships
present in the story.
The transmogrification of
Salma, Moni, and Iman into objects and creatures - a "doormat," a
"Swiss ball," and an "inhuman" entity serves as a
paradigmatic exemplar of the deconstructionist notion that identity is
inherently fragmented and susceptible to multiple interpretations (Derrida
123). This metamorphosis subverts traditional notions of self and humanity,
highlighting the precariousness and brittleness of identity (Butler 145).
Furthermore, Iman's spiritual return is accompanied by a reclamation of her
cultural heritage, as evidenced by her decision to don the hijab once more
(Aboulela 261). This gesture can be interpreted as a form of resistance to
dominant cultural norms and a reassertion of her Arab identity, thereby
underscoring the complex interplay between culture, identity, and power (Said
167).
Their migration to a different
country, where they must adjust to a new society, is a physical manifestation
of dislocation. This dichotomy between familiarity and unfamiliarity, however,
is problematic since it suggests a rigid and unchanging concept of identity and
belonging (Derrida 41-42). In actuality, the experiences of the protagonists
make it difficult to distinguish between these oppositions, exposing the
complexity of culture and identity. Each character grapples with individual
dislocation as they navigate personal feelings of loss, alienation, and the
longing for belonging. This sense of dislocation is further complicated by the
cultural dislocation they experience, as they find themselves straddling the
boundaries of their heritage and the new culture they encounter. According to
Derrida, this kind of cultural dislocation reveals the instability of cultural
identities and the need to challenge the binary oppositions that underlie them
(Derrida 123-125).
As they fight with their inner
conflicts and the reverberation of their past experiences, emotional
dislocation also becomes apparent. The complexity and diversity of identity,
which cannot be boiled down to straightforward binary oppositions, are highlighted
by this emotional upheaval (Derrida 151-153). This dislocation motif is
essential to Aboulela's story because it emphasises the significant challenges
of managing several identities and negotiating various cultural contexts. The
story eloquently depicts the difficulties and changes that occur in the search
for a sense of home amid the turmoil of displacement via the prism of their
travels (Aboulela 78-80).
The narrative unfolds as a
dynamic tapestry, woven from the threads of its characters' journeys across
shifting landscapes and regions. Like a magic carpet or moving circle, their
stories intersect and converge, propelled by the pursuit of better lives amidst
the complexities of social, medical, economic, and existential domains. As
migrant characters navigate the tumultuous terrain of despair, discord, dread,
homelessness, lost love, and societal restraints, their polycentric identities
evolve, comprising a rich array of icons and experiences. Driven by a quest for
self-conscious identity, stability, and autonomy, these diasporic characters
seek to rebuild and redefine themselves in the diaspora, yearning to transcend
the shackles of social oppression, patriarchal authority, and feminine
subjugation. As Aboulela observes, "each of them was self-conscious, aware
of her restored body, and how good it felt to be whole, to be upright"
(267), underscoring the transformative power of self-awareness and bodily autonomy
in the journey towards wholeness.
Conclusion
Gurnah’s Paradise and
Aboulela's Bird Summons are compelling depictions of the loss of
religious and cultural identities as a result of colonialism, migration, and
globalisation. The novels' protagonists, Yusuf and Salma, demonstrate the
complicated and frequently fraught nature of identity creation and negotiation
in the face of cultural disruption and displacement. As this study has shown,
the loss of religious and cultural identities is a common topic in both works,
reflecting the larger historical and cultural settings of colonialism, slavery,
and migration. The novels demonstrate how these experiences can cause
dislocation and disorientation as people try to reconcile their conventional
beliefs and practices with the needs of a fast-changing environment.
However, the novels imply that
this loss of identity is not always permanent or irreversible in nature.
Rather, they provide images of resistance, subversion, and transformation as
people seek to recover and affirm their cultural and religious identities in
the face of misfortune. According to Bhabha, "the hybridity of cultural
identity" can be a source of strength and creativity, not weakness and
division. Finally, the texts Paradise and Bird Summons provide
profound insights into the complexities and nuances of religious and cultural
identity loss. They encourage readers to think critically about how cultural
identity is produced, negotiated, and modified in the face of historical and
cultural change by depicting human experiences in nuanced and empathic ways.
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