Cite this article as: Balogun, Z. (2025). A pragmatic analysis of deictic expressions in Bola Ahmed Tinubu’s 2023 presidential campaign speeches. Sokoto Journal of Linguistics and Communication Studies (SOJOLICS), 1(1), 81–87. www.doi.org/10.36349/sojolics.2025.v01i01.011
A PRAGMATIC
ANALYSIS OF DEICTIC EXPRESSIONS IN BOLA AHMED TINUBU’S 2023 PRESIDENTIAL
CAMPAIGN SPEECHES
By
Balogun Zainab
University Of
Ilorin
Abstract
This study investigates the use of deixis in Bola Ahmed Tinubu’s 2023
presidential campaign speech, examining how contextual reference shapes meaning
in political communication. Grounded in pragmatic theory, particularly
Levinson’s account of deixis as context-dependent interpretation, the research
adopts a qualitative content analysis approach to identify and interpret
deictic expressions in the speech. Data were sourced purposively from publicly
available campaign materials, including official platforms and media
publications. The analysis reveals that person, spatial, temporal,
demonstrative, possessive, and exophoric deixis are strategically deployed to
construct proximity, assert authority, and foster solidarity with the audience.
The findings show that (i) deictic expressions create immediacy and strengthen
the speaker–audience relationship; (ii) deixis enhances message relevance by
anchoring political promises in shared contexts; (iii) deictic choices help
articulate concrete political commitments; and (iv) deictic ideology supports
inclusivity and persuasive alignment. The study concludes that deixis plays a
central role in shaping the grammatical and rhetorical structure of the
campaign discourse. It recommends deeper attention to deictic strategies in
political communication studies, as inadequate contextual interpretation may
lead to misunderstanding of political intent and message framing.
Keywords: Pragmatics,
Political Discourse, Politeness Strategies, Deixis, Speech Acts
1. Introduction
Language is one of the most complex human-specific phenomena. Beyond its
semiotic capacity to convey information, language also functions as an art form
and as a social instrument that shapes interpretation through voice modulation,
pitch, gesture, and context. As Taylor and Taylor (1990) note, language is a
system of signs used to convey messages, enabling individuals to express
thoughts and negotiate meaning in daily interaction. It is therefore central to
human communication, serving as a medium through which relationships are
constructed and maintained.
Understanding language in use requires attention to context, who is
speaking, where the utterance occurs, and when it is produced. These dimensions
collectively form the deictic centre of linguistic events. Meaning
cannot be fully recovered from linguistic form alone; instead, it depends on
the deictic expressions that anchor utterances to specific spatial, temporal,
and personal coordinates. As Verschueren (1999) explains, expressions such as
pronouns, adverbs of place and time, and other context-dependent forms are
deictic because their interpretation relies on contextual information. The
listener must therefore infer intended meaning through pragmatic reasoning,
applying principles that characterize cooperative communication. In this way,
meaning emerges from contextual sense-making, and every utterance reflects the
inherent complexity of language as a socially embedded activity.
Political discourse offers a particularly rich arena for examining the
intersection of language, context, and power. Language politics refers to the
strategic and ideological use of linguistic choices in the political domain.
Orwell’s 1984 famously illustrated how political actors reshape
vocabulary to influence public thought, while Chomsky (2004) argues that
language functions as a currency of power in elections, governance, and public
persuasion. Political discourse operates indexically: every lexical and
structural choice implicitly or explicitly encodes a political stance. Such
discourse is inherently interactional, involving debate, alignment,
negotiation, and often deliberate vagueness designed to persuade or obscure.
Chilton (1998) further notes that while language is a universal human
capacity, politics is the art of governance; thus, political language becomes a
tool through which actors pursue interests, construct legitimacy, and influence
behaviour. Political communication therefore involves linguistic
strategies,conscious and often subtle forms of manipulation,designed to shape
public perception. From a pragmatic perspective, these strategies rely heavily
on the perlocutionary effects of speech acts, using language not only to inform
but also to persuade, align, compel, or manage ideological commitments.
Against this backdrop, deixis becomes a crucial analytical lens,
especially in political texts where reference to persons, times, and spaces is
strategically manipulated to project authority, construct solidarity, and frame
national narratives. A pragmatic study of deixis in political discourse thus
reveals how contextual anchoring is used to shape interpretation, align
audiences, and negotiate power.
2. Literature
Review
The concept of deixis derives from the Greek deiknunai, meaning
‘to show’ or ‘to point’, and in linguistics it refers to the capacity of
certain expressions to anchor meaning to context. Deictic expressions such as this,
that, here, now, and I require contextual
information for their interpretation, since their reference shifts across
situations of use. Central to this notion is the “canonical situation of
utterance,” in which the speaker occupies the origo,the deictic centre
from which spatial, temporal, and personal reference is oriented (Levinson,
2004). Deixis therefore represents one of the most fundamental operations
speakers perform through language, namely the linguistic act of situating
people, objects, and events in relation to the communicative setting (Yule,
1996).
From a pragmatic perspective, deixis is indispensable because it
demonstrates how utterance meaning depends not only on linguistic form but also
on the extralinguistic environment. Levinson (1983) situates deixis firmly
within pragmatics, emphasizing that deictic expressions reflect the
relationship between linguistic structure and the contexts in which language is
deployed. On this account, understanding utterances containing deictic terms
requires access to information about who is speaking, to whom they are
speaking, the temporal and spatial coordinates of the utterance, and the
broader discourse environment. Deixis thus serves as a bridge between
linguistic form and communicative function, illustrating directly how meaning
is shaped by the speech situation.
Karl Bühler’s classical formulation (1934), expressed in the triad
“Here–Now–I,” further clarifies the structure of the deictic system. In his
framework, here marks spatial deixis, now temporal deixis, and I
personal deixis, all organized around the origo that determines how
reference is computed. Bühler’s contribution underscores the centrality of
deixis to context construction: deictic expressions embed the speech situation
into language, allowing interlocutors to coordinate space, time, and identity within
interaction.
Contemporary research has expanded the pragmatic significance of deixis
beyond referential anchoring to include ideological, rhetorical, and persuasive
dimensions. Scholars have demonstrated that deixis plays a crucial role in
political communication, where speakers manipulate deictic choices to construct
collective identities, align audiences, and project authority (Chilton, 2004;
Cap, 2013). In political speeches, personal deixis becomes particularly
salient. The alternation between I, you, and we can index
shifts in responsibility, authority, and solidarity, enabling leaders to frame
themselves as agents of action or as members of a unified collective. Spatial
and temporal deixis also contribute to political positioning by invoking images
of national space (this nation, our land) and by situating
political action within strategic temporal frames (now is the time, in
the coming years). Through such choices, deixis functions as a subtle but
powerful instrument for producing ideological alignment.
Within Nigerian political discourse, deixis has been shown to influence
the framing of national identity, the distribution of agency, and voter
persuasion. Campaign speeches in particular deploy deictic expressions to
construct proximity between politicians and the electorate, to contrast present
hardship with promised future improvement, and to assign responsibility for
national challenges. These rhetorical strategies reveal that deixis is not
merely a linguistic mechanism but a socio-political tool used to shape
perceptions and mobilize support. Consequently, analysingdeixis in political
communication,such as in Bola Ahmed Tinubu’s 2023 presidential campaign
speech,provides insight into how candidates construct relations with citizens,
legitimate their ideological positions, and narrate the nation’s challenges and
aspirations.
Types of deixis have traditionally been classified into five major
categories: person deixis, spatial deixis, temporal deixis, social deixis, and
discourse deixis (Yule, 1996; Levinson, 1983). Person deixis encodes
participant roles (e.g., I, you, they), while spatial
deixis orients utterances in physical space (e.g., here, there).
Temporal deixis situates events in time (e.g., now, then), and
social deixis reflects relational and status-based differences between
interlocutors. Discourse deixis, meanwhile, refers to parts of the unfolding
text itself (e.g., as mentioned earlier, in this section). Each
category plays a significant role in shaping interactional meaning, but in
political discourse, person, spatial, and temporal deixis are especially
central to the construction of ideological stance and rhetorical force.
Thus, deixis constitutes a core pragmatic phenomenon that ties linguistic
form to contextual interpretation. Its role in political discourse extends far
beyond reference, serving as a strategic resource for crafting identity,
negotiating solidarity, and persuading audiences. Analysing deictic usage in
political speeches therefore illuminates the underlying ideological and
rhetorical mechanisms through which political actors construct meaning and
influence public perception.
3. Theoretical
Framework
This study is anchored in pragmatic theory and political communication,
with a particular focus on the role of deixis as articulated by Levinson
(1983). Levinson’s framework identifies person, spatial, temporal, discourse,
and social deixis as key categories whose interpretation depends on contextual
information and the broader phenomenon of indexicality. These categories guide
the analysis of how meaning shifts according to speaker, audience, time, and
communicative setting. Complementing this is Bitzer’s (1968) rhetorical
situation theory, which posits that political rhetoric derives its force and
meaning from the specific circumstances in which it is produced. In this study,
deictic expressions are therefore examined not only for their referential function
but also for their rhetorical work, how they construct speaker–audience
relationships, shape public perception, foreground campaign priorities, and
reinforce ideological positioning within the political context of the 2023
Nigerian presidential election.
4. Methodology
The study adopts a qualitative content analysis approach to investigate
the use of deictic expressions in Bola Ahmed Tinubu’s 2023 presidential
campaign discourse. This methodological choice enables a detailed examination
of the pragmatic and rhetorical functions of language within naturally
occurring political communication. The analysis focuses on identifying,
categorizing, and interpreting instances of deixis, paying attention to how
each form operates within its immediate and broader contextual environment.
Data were sourced from publicly available campaign materials and analysed
through iterative coding to capture patterns, thematic relevance, and pragmatic
implications. Reliability was enhanced through cross-checking of deictic
categories, while validity was supported by grounding interpretations in
established pragmatic theory. Ethical considerations were maintained by using
only publicly accessible campaign materials without altering their content.
A purposive sampling strategy was employed to capture deictic usage
across varied communicative situations within the campaign. Materials were
selected based on their relevance to major campaign events and thematic
significance. These included rally speeches, policy declarations, media
interviews, and other public addresses associated with the 2023 presidential
campaign. This sampling approach ensures that the dataset reflects the full
range of contexts in which the candidate deployed deictic expressions, thereby
enabling a comprehensive and contextually grounded analysis.
Data were systematically collected from publicly accessible sources,
including official campaign websites, news outlets, and social media platforms.
Only materials directly relevant to the campaign period were included. The
gathered data were organized according to predefined categories to effectively
track and analyze the evolving use of deictic expressions throughout the
campaign.
|
S/N |
Date/ Platforms |
Bola Ahmad Tinubu’sPreseidential
Campaign Speech For 2023 Election |
|
1. |
Tweets October 21, 2022. |
We recognize that no Nigerian wants
empty answers to hard questions at this hour. Nigerians seek true and
innovative solutions that address specific challenges of each of our 36
states and our 200 million people. We need our own miracle on the Niger river.
25th February 2023 is a contest to
define the soul of the Nation and to determine our collective Fate. Given the
chance, I will build a Nigeria where all citizens will be able to build a
decent life from the fruit of their individual and Collective endeavor. |
|
2. |
November 15, 2022 |
Governing Nigeria is a sacred Trust,
which I do not take lightly. Such responsibility requires the best brains and
the most skilled hands from across our nation. Most importantly, it requires
the right leader. |
|
3. |
November 18, 2022 |
We will build an ecosystem, where
Traders will have access to credit facilities and create more and better jobs
for our youths as well as support more high quality homegrown goods. My
government will build industrial hubs in ABA and owerri. |
|
4. |
November 26, 2023. |
We know the road and where it leads. On
February 25th, let us take the first step on that journey to the
National home which only progressive good governance can build. What we did for Lagos, we must now do
for our beloved nation. I promise this country and economic rebirth like the
one we delivered here |
|
5. |
Yenogoa campaign Rally December 1, 2022 |
I am an expert, I know the road. I took
on Lagos; I clean it up, I develop it; face the Atlantic and conquer the
Atlantic for Lagos. |
|
6. |
BBC Africa interview December 6, 2022 |
I’m different. I am Bola Ahmed Tinubu. I
have governed Lagos. I’ve built a modern state that could be a country on its
own. I’ve led an administration that is so prudent. From 600 million
internally generated revenue to 5 billion a month. That’s a record Nobody
else can brag about that. They have no track record. None of them is
qualified except me. |
|
7. |
NESG interview with Dr.
OsasuyiDirisu January 13, 2023 |
Do we believe in ourselves or do we
continue to make mass migration? If you hire 500 new employees why can't
I as a government give you some tax incentives to offset that payroll and the
pension contribution that may be associated with it. |
|
8. |
January 13, 2023 |
I don't want to sit here and reveal all
my strategies. I don't want to give you a comprehensive plan that I have
because others are coming. |
|
9. |
January 13, 2023 |
I did well and I did it well. I'm proud.
In Lagos 600 million Naira a month internally generated revenue, today 50
billion Naira every month. I'm making it the 5th largest economy. |
|
10. |
January 13, 2023 |
I don't know how old you are. When we
started PIA. Look at how many years it took us to conclude on it. No, you
don't accept that. That is not growing a nation. |
|
11. |
Rivers state rally February 15, 2023 |
You want the president.Here I come. I
will be by the grace of God become your president by the power of your votes. |
|
12. |
February 15, 2023 |
I know already that you are looking for
president, you will vote for me as your president.Today I'm here. I don't
want to leave you in doubt; I am running for president. |
|
13. |
Ogun state Rally |
Eḿini o kán - It is my turn |
|
14. |
Ogun state Rally |
I have served enough. I do not want to
become history. It is my turn to become president. It is a matter of right to
me. … Bring it on’
|
|
15. |
Lagos state Rally |
We might be hungry, but we can manage
our hunger. |
|
16. |
Live Broadcast on NTA June 7, 2022 |
I have the expertise. My record of
corporate leadership, my financial expertise and my experience as an
executive governor make me unique among the aspirants; giving me the
requisite skills to accelerate progressive reforms that will change the face
of the national economy |
|
17. |
June 7, 2022 |
The other candidates are all good men.
But I sincerely believe I am the person this moment calls for. |
|
18. |
Bayelsa Rally Live Broad Cast on TVC News. December 1, 2022 |
Blessed thy soul, it is time we sweep
them out. Broom revolution. Sweep them away, follow me.. and vote for me I will make your lives
better. |
|
19. |
Presidential Campaign Flag-off in Warri
/ TVC News Live November 19, 2022. |
Your fish industries are not for sale
but for development. Warri is going down due to bad leadership. We know the
way. Go to Lagos and see development and progress and prosperity. Let me see your hands up if you will vote
for me. |
|
20. |
Presidential Campaign In Kaduna December 13, 2023 |
All those kidnappers in Kaduna. I assure
you we will eliminate them. A leader without a good successor is not a
leader. El Rufai has done a good job in Kaduna |
5. Data Analysis
The analysis of
deictic expressions was carried out in a systematic manner, beginning with the
identification of expressions such as personal pronouns (e.g., “we, you,
they”), demonstratives (e.g., “this, that”), and temporal markers (e.g.,
“today, now”) across the campaign materials. These expressions were then coded
and categorized based on their function within the discourse, including
inclusive pronouns, persuasive strategies, and temporal references. Each
expression was further analyzed in context, taking into account the intended
audience, rhetorical purpose, and emotional appeal. Finally, a comparative
analysis was conducted to identify patterns and changes in the use of deictic
expressions across different phases of the campaign, highlighting shifts in
emphasis and strategy.
In Bola Tinubu's presidential campaign speeches presented above, deictic
expressions played a crucial role in conveying meaning and engaging the
audience. Personal pronouns and temporal expressions such as “this hour,”“our
36 states,” and “our 200 million people” emphasized urgency, fostered a sense
of inclusivity, and created shared national identity, while statements like “I
am an expert,”“I will build a Nigeria,” and “I know the road” highlighted his
personal agency and commitment. Tinubu also used self-adulation, for example,
“I am Bola Ahmed Tinubu,” to establish credibility and remind the audience of
his governance experience. Inclusive language, such as “our nation” and “we
recognize,” promoted unity, and the Yoruba phrase Eḿini o kán (‘it is my
turn’) asserted readiness and excluded competitors, reflecting audacity and
determination. Overall, deictic expressions served persuasive and rhetorical
purposes, connecting with the audience, emphasizing shared responsibility, and
highlighting key national issues, though some phrases like “true and innovative
solutions” and “build a Nigeria” were general, limiting assessment of
feasibility.
The Roles of
Deixis in the Choice of Tinubu's Presidential Campaign Expressions
1. Spatial
deixis is evident in Tinubu’s campaign, as it references specific locations to
emphasize connection with regions and the nation. For instance, in datum 19,
“Go to Lagos and see development and progress and prosperity,” Lagos is
highlighted as a model of success, implying similar achievements can occur
elsewhere. Similarly, the phrase “Governed Lagos” (datum 6) conveys
responsibility tied to a specific geographical entity, reinforcing a sense of
trust. Tinubu also focuses on economic development in cities like Aba and
Owerri, showing a spatial strategy to replicate Lagos’s industrial success.
Spatial comparisons appear in statements like “What we did for Lagos, we must
now do for our beloved nation,” while references to specific achievements, such
as internally generated revenue growth from 600 million to 5 billion Naira
monthly (datum 1), further underscore spatial ties. Campaign rally locations,
including Yenegoa and Rivers (datum 5), demonstrate a deliberate use of spatial
deixis to connect with voters across regions.
2. Demonstrative
deixis is evident in statements like “It is my turn to become president. It is
a matter of right to me. Bring it on” (data 13–14), where “it” emphasizes a
tangible, immediate claim to the presidency, conveying determination and
certainty. Temporal deixis appears throughout the campaign, anchoring messages
to specific times and creating urgency. Phrases such as “…hard questions at
this hour” (datum 1) highlight immediate challenges, while references to future
plans, like providing credit facilities for traders (datum 3), project his
vision forward. Past achievements, e.g., “When we started PIA” (datum 10),
illustrate the time invested in policy development, adding perspective and
anticipation.
3. Exophoric
references, such as “I don’t know how old you are,” direct the audience to
reflect on personal circumstances, engaging them individually. Possessive
deixis, including “I have the expertise. My record of corporate leadership, my
financial expertise,” emphasizes personal ownership and reinforces credibility
by highlighting Tinubu’s individual experience and qualifications.
Effects of Deictic
Elements on the Audience
The deictic
elements in Bola Tinubu's campaign speeches significantly influence both
listeners and readers. Personal pronouns and self-references, such as “I am,”
“I know,” and “I am Bola Ahmed Tinubu,” establish a direct personal connection,
fostering familiarity and relatability. References to achievements, like
increasing Lagos’s internally generated revenue from 600 million to 50 billion
Naira, emphasize personal responsibility and build credibility. Statements such
as “I’m different” and “None of them is qualified except me” highlight his
uniqueness, positioning him as a standout candidate. Phrases like “It is my
turn” and “Bring it on” create urgency and determination, motivating audience
engagement. By addressing issues such as mass migration and tax incentives,
Tinubu demonstrates awareness of audience concerns, strengthening connection
and trust. Calls to action like “follow me” and “vote for me; I will make your
lives better” foster a sense of collective responsibility, while emotionally
charged expressions such as “Blessed thy soul” and “sweep them out” enhance
emotional resonance, increasing the persuasive impact of his campaign messages.
Most Prominent
Deictic Elements in Bola Tinubu's Campaign Speech and their Linguistic Reasons
Several deictic
elements are prominently used in Bola Tinubu's campaign speeches to convey
messages effectively, each serving specific linguistic purposes. Personal
pronouns (I, we) directly involve the speaker and the audience, creating
engagement and inclusivity, as in “I am an expert” and “Given the chance I will
build a Nigeria.” Temporal deixis (e.g., February 25th, today, this moment,
now) anchors the speech in specific times, adding immediacy and relevance,
illustrated by “25th February 2023 is a contest” and “When we started PIA.”
Spatial deixis (e.g., Lagos, our beloved nation, Aba, Owerri, Warri, Kaduna)
establishes connections with specific locations, appealing to regional
identity, as seen in “Go to Lagos and see development” and “We must now do for
our beloved nation.” Demonstrative deixis (this, that, these, those) emphasizes
particular ideas or concepts, e.g., “I’m making it the 5th largest economy” and
“Do we believe in ourselves?” Possessive deixis (our, my, your) conveys
ownership and inclusivity, e.g., “Our 36 states,” “My government will build
industrial hubs.” Interrogative pronouns (who, what, how) engage the audience
and prompt reflection, as in “Do we believe in ourselves?” and “How many years
it took us to conclude on it?” Imperative verbs (follow, vote, bring) encourage
specific actions, e.g., “Follow me” and “Bring it on.” Metaphorical language
(Broom revolution, face the Atlantic, conquer the Atlantic) adds vividness and
symbolism, making the message memorable, e.g., “Broom revolution” and “Conquer
the Atlantic for Lagos.” Finally, exophoric references point to entities or
events outside the discourse, demonstrating awareness of the socio-political
context, as in “El Rufai has done a good job in Kaduna” and “All those
kidnappers in Kaduna.”
6. Findings
The study aligns with Hanks (2005) Deictic Field Theory, which explains
how speakers use deixis to refer to themselves, the addressee, third-party
referents, and objects within a communicative act. The data from Bola Tinubu’s
campaign speeches reveal a persuasive narrative rich in deictic expressions,
yet the political messages often leave room for interpretation. A notable
limitation lies in the ambiguity of proposed solutions and plans. Phrases such
as “true and innovative solutions” and “build a Nigeria” lack specific details,
making it difficult to assess the feasibility and practicality of the proposed
actions. Providing more concrete and actionable plans could enhance voters’
understanding of how these changes would be implemented and reduce skepticism.
The dominant deictic expressions in the speeches include spatial deixis
(e.g., “in Lagos,” “here”), temporal deixis (e.g., “today,” “when we started
PIA,” “already”), and personal deixis (e.g., “I,” “you,” “my,” “me”). These
expressions create immediacy and foster a personal connection between the
speaker and the audience, making the message contextually relevant and more
engaging.
Tinubu also builds trust through strategic secrecy, with the deliberate
choice not to reveal all strategies or comprehensive plans. This approach can
convey caution and strategic thinking in a competitive political environment,
reinforcing credibility. However, potential pitfalls in the speeches include
the risk of appearing self-centered, exhibiting regional bias, vagueness,
creating perceived pressure, generating varied interpretations of metaphors,
and potential alienation due to specific references. Effective communication,
therefore, requires balancing these linguistic elements with clarity,
inclusivity, and adaptability to maintain audience engagement and persuasive
impact.
7. Conclusion
The analysis
offers important insights into the use of deictic expressions in Bola Tinubu's
campaign speeches, highlighting how linguistic choices shape audience
engagement, inclusivity, and persuasive impact. However, the study has
limitations. It focuses exclusively on a single political campaign, and broader
analysis encompassing other candidates and campaigns could provide a more
comprehensive understanding of deixis in political discourse. Furthermore,
examining a larger and more diverse dataset may reveal additional patterns and
nuances, offering deeper insights into how deictic expressions function across
different political contexts.
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